PSYCHSTATS: MODULE 2

Research

• Is the outcome of some combination of innate curiosity, practical necessity, and resource availability so we need to know:

  • Which problem/s matter to us?

  • Which question/s should we ask?

  • How do we answer the question/s?

The Reasearch Question

How to make this:

1. Choose your topic of focus.

2. Do preliminary reading about current and relevant information.

3. Focus on a specific niche/gap.

4. Identify problem/s to address.

❖ How your question is framed depends on your objectives

Hypothesis

• a prediction or a tentative explanation about a specific event or relationship between variables which can be tested through further investigation

• “educated guess”

Theory

• a set of interrelated constructs, definitions, and propositions that presents a systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among variables to explain said phenomena.

• “related ideas”

Reasearch Framework

• In planning for a study, researchers must think about the philosophical worldview assumptions that they bring to the study, the research design related to this worldview, and the specific research methods or procedures which translate the approaches into practice.

Philosophical Worldview

• Creswell & Creswell (2023) use worldview to mean, “a basic set of beliefs that guide action”

• Other terms used include paradigm, epistemology, and ontology

• Worldviews are formed based on people’s discipline orientations and research

Positivist Paradigm

• AKA scientific method, positivist/postpositivist research, empirical science, and postpositivism

• Utilized in quantitative research

• Main assumptions: Causes (likely) determine effects/outcomes, and evidence established in research is always imperfect and fallible.

Constructivist Paradigm

• Used in qualitative research

• Main assumption: Individuals construct subjective meanings as they engage with the world they are interpreting.

• Basic generation of meaning is always social, arising in and out of interaction with a community.

Transformative Paradigm

• For action-oriented / applied research

• Research inquiry must be intertwined with politics and a political change agenda to confront social oppression at whatever levels it occurs (Mertens, 2010)

• Main assumption: Research contains an action agenda for reform that may change lives and institutions.

Pragmatic Paradigm

• Best applies to mixed methods research studies

• Main assumption: Research arises out of actions, situations, and consequences rather than antecedent conditions

• Truth is what works at the time and does not commit to any one system of philosophy and reality

Study Duration

• Cross-sectional

• Longitudinal

Data Type

• Quantitative

• Qualitative

• Mixed Methods

Research Objective

• Descriptive

• Correlational

• Experimental

Descriptive Research

• Concerned with illustrating characteristics of observed data and phenomena

• Studies of this design can be either quantitative or qualitative if they describe a variable/occurrence

  • May involve observation studies (naturalistic/laboratory), case studies, and/or surveys (open-ended/close-ended)

Correlational Research

• Concerned with verifying associations between variables

• These studies involve at least two or more variables and looking at the magnitude and direction of their relationships

  • Include correlation, prediction/regression

• Though association is tested, causal direction is not specified

• correlation ≠ causation

• also covers prediction studies that do not aim to manipulate variable attributes

• Instead of using independent and dependent variables, others call them predictor/explanatory and outcome/criterion variables

• Other advanced models add variables to moderate or mediate the predictions being tested

Experimental Research

• Concerned with testing cause and effect between variable relations

• Studies of this design are powerful and follow an “if-then” pattern.

• Criteria to qualify as experiment:

  • Manipulation of independent variable/s

  • Experimental and control conditions

  • Random assignment of participants

• If at least one condition is missing, the study is a quasi-experiment

Criteria for Selecting a Research Approach

• Research problem and questions

• Personal Experiences

• Target Audience

Statistical Research Attributes

• Rely on quantitative approaches

• Require testable hypotheses

• Often use theoretical frameworks

• Apply suitable sampling methods

• Depend on proper tools / analyses

Probability Sampling

• lets everyone within a population to have a known chance of being selected.

• Minimizes sampling bias, but costly

  • Random Sampling

  • Systematic Sampling

  • Stratified Sampling

  • Cluster Sampling

Non-Probability Sampling

• makes some members of the population more likely to be chosen than others

• Cost-efficient, but limited in terms of fairness and generalizability

  • Convenience Sampling

  • Volunteer Sampling

  • Snowball Sampling

  • Purposive Sampling

  • Quota Sampling

Random Sampling

• (also called the fishbowl or lottery method) everyone has an equal, independent chance of being selected.

Systematic Sampling

• allows random selection of members at regular, fixed intervals.

Stratified Sampling

• the population is divided into distinct subgroups to ensure all segments are proportionally represented.

Cluster Sampling

• organizes the population into naturally occurring groups, or "_____" rather than individual members.

Convenience Sampling

• is for recruiting people who are easy to access.

Volunteer Sampling

• individuals from the population willingly choose to join a study.

Purposive Sampling

• aka judgement sampling

• involves having specific inclusion criteria to build a representative sample.

Snowball Sampling

• one asks their existing sample members to refer other eligible people to join the study.

Quota Sampling

• when the researcher invites people to join a study simply until a predetermined number or ___ is reached.

Question

“be curious about something”

Problem

“Observe for gaps in knowledge”

Objective

“Establish bounderise of investigation”

Sampling & Collection Method

“Design ways to learn about the problem”

Analysis Method

“Determine ways to organize and analyze findings”

Discussion

“Interpret findings based on current and previous studies”

Conclusion, Limitations, and Recommendations

“Summarize overall findings then set future directions for investigation”