Functionalist + Marxism Flashcards

Functionalist + Marxist views on inequalities (SAGE)

Parsons - SOCIAL CLASS

→ Social class inequality is inevitable and necessary for the smooth running of society

→ SC inequality is an inevitable feature of a social system that requires order and ranking

→ ranking in society is based on a value consensus about what society values, and thus there is generally agreement about who deserves the highest rewards

→KAPPA Values: Kinship (family), Achievement, Possessions, Personal qualities, Authority

→ more of these qualities = higher in the system of stratification

→ as a society, we are fine with this, because we ALL AGREE these are high value

→ those who are highly valued and rewarded (in the labour market (employment)); those who are not are not

Durkheim - SOCIAL CLASS

→ Social class inequalities create social order

→ specialised division of labour in which people have different functions, skills and abilities - characterised by social divisions

→ people are content to take their positions because they believe in its moral worth

→ this value consensus also means members accept the legitimacy of stratification

→ stratification sets limits on competition on aspirations

→ we cannot all compete for everything, and therefore order is maintained

→ professions rely on each other to function, e.g. surgeon - anesthesiologist

Davis and Moore - SOCIAL CLASS

→ Social class inequalities are functional for soiety

→ role allocation - individuals are assigned jobs based on their hard work + achievements, statistics in education, e.g. Surgeon No.1, Footballer No.10

→ this is inevitable and beneficial for society

→ social stratification is a feature of all human society - functionally necessary

→ 2 functions:

• allocating the right people to the most important roles, e.g., doctors

• ensuring high performance in key roles, e.g., motivating them to keep doing their best

→ 2 things help tell whether roles are the most important:

• functional uniqueness = a position is functionally unique if only one person, or a small number, can carry out the role; e.g., consultant surgeons have differing skills; one might be the only one who can conduct a heart transplant

• The degree of dependence of others = the extent to which other people depend on a role for their jobs; e.g., Chief Executive - makes decisions and gives orders to lower-level employees, and are dependant on no one for their role

Gans - SOCIAL CLASS

→ social class inequalities exist because poverty serves an important function in society

→ poverty performs important social functions - particularly for the non-poor, and that these functions help explain why poverty continues to exist in society

→ specific functions help stabilise the existing class structure and maintain social order:

• Economic functions

• Cultural functions

• Political functions

• Moral legitimation

• Social Solidarity

→ Gans is not saying poverty is good - “poverty persists not because it is beneficial to the poor - but because it is functional for others

→ exposes the hidden benefits that the upper and middle class derive from a system where poverty and class inequality are maintained

Murdock - GENDER

→Gender inequalities are the result of biological differences

→Functionalists believe men (instrumental role, breadwinner), and women (expressive role, childcare, emotional support) and men’s biological link (physically stronger - suited to hunting and providing) and women’s biological link (pregnancy and breastfeeding; suited to nurturing children)

→Murdock saw the social roles that men and women have, which have led to differencs in societal outcomes (e.g. wages), as being social constructed and reinforced

→claimed that these role fundamentally stem from the natural, biological differences between males and females

→this gendered division of labour in nuclear families is evident in all societies, and he claimed this to be because they’re essential to a functional society

Parsons - GENDER

→Gender inequalities are the result of socialised roles which are necessary for society

→argued that gender inequalities are not really inequalities, but are simply due to the correct gender roles that males and females are socialised into

→argued females are socialised into expressive caring roles - suited to domesticity

→males are socialised into instrumental roles - work and labour - suited for paid work

→women are less motivated and less suited to the labour market than men; therefore, it is not surprising that, on average, they are paid less

→he saw these differences as innate, ascribed at birth, and ultimately contributing to a healthy, smooth running

Parsons and Bales - GENDER

→Women’s expressive role is crucial for primary socialisation and personality stabilisation

→women are the key figure in providing primary socialisation for children, which is essential for reproducing social order

→women provide personality stabilisation for other adult family members (mainly men)

→women provide comfort to husband when not at work - crucial for male productivity

→so, women are not present in certain sectors of social life which led to things such as individual welath, power, or authority

Rastogi - GENDER

→Gender inequalities in work are inevitable

→argues that men are simply more work-oriented and committed to their jobs than women, who typically choose to prioritise their roles as homemakers and caring for family over their careers

→human capital = the knowledge, competence, attitudes, and behaviour embedded in an individual

→means men gain more human capital while wome breaks from their career (lose HC)

→creates a self-fulfilling prophecy whereby men simply become more valued in work, further giving men more confidence, while women feel less confident in work and take lower-status, and less well-paid positions

→Rastogi sees this as a naturally occuring phenomenon rather than a patriarchal conspiracy

Patterson - ETHNICITY

→ethnic inequalities are caused by anxieties and fear over differing norms and values

→host immigrant model (explain racial tensions in Britain) - Windish Generation

→depicts Britain as a stable, orderly place, high levels of value consensus - stability undermined by the arrival of immigrants from South Asia and the Caribbean (50s/60s)

→’ culture clash’ with their British ‘hosts’

→the British were not directly racist, but frightened of immigrants’ behaviour and culture

→Argued racial and ethnic prejudice was caused by:

• host’s culture’s fear of strangers, cultural difference, and social change

• host’s culture, WC’s resentment - compete for jobs and housing

• failure of ethnic minorities to assimilate (become totally British)

→ethnic minorities eventually move toward full cultural assimilation by shedding their ‘old’ ethnic values and taking on British values:

• Accommodation - living alongside but not interacting

• Integration - living alongside and interacting, but not adopting host’s values

• Assimilation - living alongside, interacting and adopting host’s values

Parsons and Clark - ETHNICITY

→ethnic inequalities are temporary until a value consensus and equality is achieved

→wrote about blacks’ experience in US, early 20th century, who had been subjected to centuries of slavery, institutional segregation, and state-sanctioned denial of civil rights

→segregation, denied large amount of civil rights - due to deep-seated racist assumptions surrounding skin colour, used to justify inequality

→P&C strong advocates of integration, equality of rights, and predicted assimilation in America between black and white people

→argued that over time the stigma surrounding skin colour will disappear as people integrate more, and black people would be able to be successful

Merton - ETHNICITY

→Those with differing values from the value consensus will experience ‘anomie’

→ANOMIE = normlessness or the breakdown of social, moral, and ethical standards (DURKHEIM’S THEORY)

→Strain theory: people are taught to pursue society’s goals (success or wealth), but not everyone has equal access to the legitimate means to achieve them

→gap creates strain and contributes to ‘anomie’, especially for disadvantaged groups such as ethnic minorities

→EM’s may have different norms or traditions from the majority, creating a gap between their values and dominant societal values, causing anomie because feeling disconnected from mainstream rules and expectations

→when people cannot achieve culturally approved goals through legitimate means, they experience strain. Barriers like discrimination, poor schooling, or limited job opportunities make it harder for ethnic minorities to succeed, increasing anomie. leading to:

• finding alternative ways to succeed

• forming tight-knit communities with their own norms

Rastogi - ETHNICITY

→ethnic inequality is caused by differing levels of human capital rather than due to structural racism

→economic disparities are due to differences in individual skills and credentials rather than systemic racism

→lower economic outcomes among certain ethnic groups stem from temporary deficits in mainstream qualifications or language proficiency

→as subsequent generations acquire host-country education and workplace experience, their human capital naturally increases, leading to upward mobility

HUMAN CAPITAL THEORY

• The skills, knowledge, qualifications, and abilities that workers accumulate.

• Investment View: Education and training are treated as investments that raise an individual's productivity and future earning potential.

Key drivers of ethnic inequalities:

• Educational Attainment: Disparities in qualifications, grades, and university choices alter market value.

• Skill Transferability: Foreign qualifications are hard to verify, lowering the local value of first-generation immigrant human capital.

• Language & Soft Skills: Deficiencies in host-country language and local market literacy reduce immediate productivity.

Parsons - AGE

→age inequality for the elderly has to occur to allow younger generations to take control of the family

→society is in agreement over social roles

→reduced roles attached to old age are necessary for social stability

→old people disengage from their central role in the family to allow space for children

→disengagement theory, allows younger gens take the family roles as caregiver/provider

→maintains family efficiency - the family can function more effectively with elderly having ‘reduced roles’ as a clear division of labour

→reduced conflict - older people withdrawing from roles in the family may prevent inter-generational conflict

→facilitating generation renewal - when older people retire it means that the younger generations can more into their adult roles as workers and parents

Cumming and Henry - AGE

• Age inequalities for the elderly have to occur to allow younger generations to be productive at work

• Dependency ratio - it is essentially the percentage of the population that is working divided by the percentage of the population that is not.

• e.g. young, elderly, unemployed. The dependency ratio should be weighted in favour of those working

• Young - parents

• Elderly - government pensions - THESE 3 SHOULD NOT BE WORKING

• Unemployed - welfare state

• We want more in the independent category (19-64) to be working

→disengagement theory - the way society treats the old has positive benefits for society; the aging process and society’s reaction to it is part of the process by which the elderly (either through choice or legislation) are encouraged to abandon their occupational roles within the specialised division of labour.

→This process of ‘social disengagement’ allows the younger population to take their place in the labour market with minimum disruption.

→Essential, as young people need to be productive and are perhaps more productive than the older generation.

→‘Ageing is an inevitable, mutual withdrawal or disengagement, resulting in decreased interaction between the ageing person and others in the social system he belongs to.’

Eisenstadt - AGE

→age inequality for the young has to occur to allow young people to cope with the challenges of adult life

→struggles of youth:

PROBLEMS POSITIVE SPIN

• seen as inferior to adults - treated differently → know what it feels like once you’re that age

• managing hard friendships/relationships → shapes your personality

• pocket money → budgeting/saving

• chores → prepare you for living alone

• coping with challenges → gain resilience

→saw adolescence as a stage for developing independance - argued youths need to go from the ascribed status of a child to achieved status as an independant adult

→claimed breaking away from family home is difficult and emotionally stressful and that youths do face an element of inequality, e.g. face inequality due to the juggling of work, home, education, friends, relationships, social pressures - THIS IS NECESSARY

→suggested that youth culture is inherently binding, in that shared interests with peers create a sense of community that helps young people get through the struggles

Cowgill and Holmes - AGE

• Age inequality exists because modernisation reduces the traditional roles and status of the elderly, but this is necessary for society to function

TRADITIONAL SOCIETIES

• elderly had high status from wisdom, experience, and control of resources

• central to social, religious, and economic life, custodians of culture and tradition

MODERN SOCIETIES

• shift from agriculture to industry; formal education and technical skills more valued

• extended families weaken; nuclear families and individualism grow

EFFECTS ON OLDER PEOPLE

• Lack valued skills; lose economic power on retirement

• Less family influence → status and power decline

FUNCTIONALIST VIEW

• Decline is a necessary adaptation to modern society

• Creates age inequality but not a failure - society prioritises economic/technological change over experience
  
  

MARX - SOCIAL CLASS

-> the structures of capitalism create exploitative relationships

-> historical materialism - all human beings have material needs for food, shelter, etc

-> gained through labour aka forces of production (hunting, picking fruit, building, mining)

-> as humans develop tools, we cooperate and enter into social relations of production - production is then directed by the class of owners to meet their needs

-> all other institutions make up the superstructure, agents of socialisation

MILLIBAND - SOCIAL CLASS

-> the ruling class perpetuates ideologies that reinforce a false class consciousness

-> The bourgeoisie owns and controls the media

-> the media acts as a distraction for the proletariat - numb senses, opium of the people

-> TV shows/movies show meritocracy - media presenting capitalism as fair or natural

-> working-class people do not challenge inequality or capitalism as they have no awareness of exploitation

GRAMSCI - SOCIAL CLASS

-> class inequality is justified through hegemony

-> to create change, individuals need more than just an economic reaction to impoverishment

-> the ruling class rules through persuasion

-> hegemony - encourages the working class to side with the ruling class and the capitalist system

-> media and the education system to control people’s ideas, values and beliefs and to spread a worldview that makes their power seem natural and legitimate

-> Many working class have a dual consciousness - aware of inequalities but still work within and contribute

WESTERGAAD - SOCIAL CLASS

-> power is becoming more concentrated in society

-> he expanded on MARX’s suggestions that the bourgeoisie will become more concentrated over time

-> expanded production and technology rendering the workforce obsolete will create a polarisation of the classes, meaning the richer will get richer and the poor will get poorer

-> ONS calculated the richest 50% together control a staggering 91% of total wealth

ENGELS - GENDER

-> women must be submissive wives to ensure a pure bloodline 

-> nuclear family - a family unit made up of parents and their children, usually living in the same home

-> development of this benefits capitalism as women carrying out caring duties allow men to work longer hours

-> exploitation in the workplace reflected in the home and within relationships; men required to take control over women - ensure they had fathered legitimate offspring - wealth could be passed on 

-> nuclear family restricts women’s sexuality and enforced monogamy - protect male property rights

ZARETSKY - GENDER (MARX FEMINIST)

-> men need to exercise their control in the home if they do not have control of other areas of life

-> family life gave proletarian men something they could control - be the ‘boss’

-> workers would tolerate the powerlessness and frustration of being exploited at work as they had a place they could be the ‘king of the castle’ to take their stress and frustrations on their wives

-> this power prevents them from walking away from their job - and that the workers have dependants, making it harder for them to resist the oppression they face at work as they need their wages

BENSTON - GENDER

-> women do unpaid labour in the home, and this is essential to the smooth running of capitalism

-> daily, women renew men’s ability to go out to work and create profits for the ruling class

-> women doing unpaid labour (cooking, cleaning, raising children, husband care) reproduces the next generation of workers at no cost to capitalist employers

-> nuclear family weakens the position of individual workers in relation to their boss

-> if a man has to provide, he is less likely to challenge capitalism

BRUEGEL - GENDER (MARX FEMINIST)

-> women act as a disposable and cheap part of the workforce which benefits a capitalist society

-> because of women’s unpaid domestic labour, they are ready to work when society needs them to

-> the ruling class uses women to join work when needed and sends them back to housewife when not

-> this turns women into a cheap ‘reserve army of labour’

-> e.g World Wars when women needed to overtake the men’s jobs as they fought

COX - ETHNICITY

-> there is a direct relationship between capitalism and racism

-> Cox stressed the idea that racism is a human creation - developed by exploiters to justify exploitation

-> early capitalism went hand in hand with colonialism

-> European nations justified their actions through racism - white people made capitalism & racism

-> claims ‘if capitalism had not developed then the world may never have experienced racial prejudice’

CASTLES AND KOSACK - ETHNICITY

-> immigrants act as a reserve army of labour in a capitalist society

-> studied immigrant work, low-skilled, low-paid manual jobs, poor working conditions - this treatment derived from the need in capitalist societies for a reserve army of labour

-> capitalist economies were inherently unstable - a reserve army of labour needed to be available to be hired and fired as the fluctuating fortunes of the economy dictated

MILES - ETHNICITY

-> the ruling class promote racial and ethnic tensions between the working class to encourage structural divisions in society -> capitalism benefits from dividing the working class along ethnic lines because these divisions weaken the potential for unified resistance against exploitation 

-> the ruling class can prevent workers from coming together based on their common economic interests by fostering racial and ethnic tensions 

-> discrimination serves as a tool to fragment and discipline the working class, ensuring workers remain divided and less able to challenge capitalist dominance effectively, e.g. unionisation

-> ethnic inequalities are not accidental but are structurally produced

HALL - ETHNICITY

-> the ruling class uses the media to detract attention away from capitalist failings 

-> moral panic over black criminality at the time created a diversion away from the wider economic crisis

-> Hall broke his analysis into several stages - how capitalism caused crime, then how media, state, and the police responded, and finally on the reaction of the criminalised black youth

-> economic recession caused major unemployment and major strikes - increased street robbery - government needed a scapegoat, used the street robberies as a moral panic - government put more police in areas with increasing crime rates - higher arrest rates within the media - the public’s attention was diverted to black criminality to mask the deeper problems of the capitalist system

PHILLIPSON - AGE

-> the young and the elderly act as a reserve army of labour in a capitalist society 

-> groups such as young and elderly who are often bought in a temporary or flexible labour e.g. zero hour contracts - this role has grown in recent years 

-> McJobs - certain groups like young or elderly ending up in insecure, low-paid work 

-> This illustrates how age-based inequality is engineered to maintain a cheap workforce

GRAMSCI - AGE

-> individuals are kept in a false consciousness about their exploited position

-> the capitalist state is made up of two overlapping spheres:

-> rule through force - it uses the army, police, prison and courts to force other classes to accept its rule

-> rule through consent - it uses the ideas and values to persuade the subordinate classes that its rule is legitimate - these can be applied to understanding the inequality faced by different age groups

-> false consciousness explains people do not realise their exploitation, often through concessions that they receive - child benefits and pensions are a form of this, creating a form of dependency

PHILLIPSON AND TOWNSEND - AGE

-> the elderly are forced to become dependent to create space in the labour market for young, productive workers

-> capitalism needs to renew its workforce to create a greater profit by using younger, productive workers - this means a system is needed where the elderly are institutionally marginalised

-> this happens through a process of institutionalised dependency e.g. elderly forced to retire, the needs of the economy are met with young workers

-> therefore, the status of the elderly is lowered in society - invaluable to the economy - denied work

VINCENT - AGE

-> the capitalist class manipulates the elderly into retiring and uses them as a scapegoat for societal issues

-> state pensions create disadvantage as they are too low - creates issues like women who are more likely to be dependent as they are less likely to have worked full time and saved for a private pension

-> The issues of state pensions are made worse by setting a retirement age 

-> sees this NOT as a necessity because people won't work, but as something that has been constructed by capitalism because of the need to control a surplus of labour

-> presenting age as a problem presents an ideological distraction; the elderly act as a scapegoat for economic issues