The Very important psych terms

Determinism

all behavior is caused

Statistical determinism

behavior follows probability laws, not one outcome

Determinants of behavior (6)

current environment; heredity/physiology; past environment, learning and socialization; history of the species; history of culture; ecology (larger environment)

Why we can't perfectly predict behavior

incomplete parameters, wrong law, error

Self-determinism

capacity of the individual to decide their own actions

Empiricism (lecture)

psychologists only accept knowledge obtainable through the senses, whose evidence is repeatable and demonstrable in public

What empiricism rules out

divine revelations ("God told me"), definitional statements, and unverifiable statements

Metaphysics

unproven assumptions about reality and existence

Operational definition

measurable, observable, replicable definition; a precise explanation of how an abstract concept or variable will be observed, tested, or manipulated in a study

Other philosophical assumptions

mind vs. body; nature (nativism) vs. nurture (environmentalism); good vs. evil

Ideographic approach

focus on the unique subjective experiences of single individuals

Nomothetic approach

establishing universal laws of behavior by studying large groups

Interactionism

the interplay between internal factors (biology, cognition) and external factors (environment); person vs. situation

Prosocial behavior

behavior that produces positive social consequences (altruism, cooperation, helping)

Bystander intervention

helping others in emergencies

Bystander effect

the more bystanders present, the less likely any one person is to help

Diffusion of responsibility

a psychological phenomenon where people are less likely to take action or feel personal accountability when other people are present; each assumes someone else will help

Evaluation apprehension

fear of being embarrassed or ridiculed for helping when it wasn't needed

Social influence

ability to change or direct another person's behavior

Altruism

behavior that benefits others at the potential cost to oneself

Kin selection

process by which evolution selects for individuals who cooperate with relatives

Reciprocal altruism

behavior that benefits another with the expectation that those benefits will be returned in the future

Altruistic personality

studies of Holocaust rescuers suggest they were adventurous, socially marginal, with high moral standards

Latane and Darley's five steps to helping

(1) notice the event, (2) interpret it as an emergency, (3) assume personal responsibility, (4) decide how to help, (5) take action

Model-similarity effect

tendency to pay more attention to, identify with, or imitate a model who seems similar to oneself

Norm of reciprocity

unwritten rule that people should benefit those who have benefitted them

STUDY: Kitty Genovese

case that sparked research on the unresponsive bystander; many witnesses, little help

STUDY: Lady in distress (number of bystanders)

IV was number of people in the room; alone 70% helped, with one other person 40%, with a passive confederate only 7%; shows diffusion of responsibility

STUDY: Seizure study (Darley and Latane, Hock)

participants over an intercom heard a "student" have a seizure; as the number of perceived bystanders rose, helping dropped and was slower (reported within 4 min: 100% / 85% / 60%); nonhelpers were anxious, not uncaring; implied presence of others is enough; takeaway: act as if you are the only bystander

STUDY: Smoke study (Latane and Darley)

55% of people alone reported smoke vs. 12% with passive confederates; people use others' inaction to interpret ambiguity

STUDY: NYC subway experiments

when someone fell, about 95% helped; the subway creates "no escape" (shared fate); ambiguity lowers helping; observers ask "is it serious? does it need me? is it difficult or costly?"

STUDY: Good Samaritan experiment

cost of helping; with plenty of time 60% helped, hurried 45%, late only 10%; time pressure reduces helping; no random sampling so not representative

STUDY: Helping on the streets of New York

time 85%, Times Square 84%, change for a quarter 73%, your name 39%, a dime 34%, a dime for a phone call 64%; giving an explanation increases helping

STUDY: Lost wallet experiment

wallet with a note from a previous finder; similar interests 70% returned, same state 60%, negative note 10%, foreigner 33%; demonstrates model-similarity effect

Obedience

following the orders of an authority figure

STUDY: Milgram shock experiment (lecture + Hock)

teacher shocked a learner (confederate) for wrong answers up to 450 volts; experts predicted about 1%, but about 65% went to the maximum (lecture notes also list 50% for the "normal" condition; check slides); participants were stressed, not sadistic; shows situation and authority can override personal morals

Milgram variations

link in the chain 93%; less legitimate setting 48%; victim in same room 40%; subject must touch victim 30%; authority leaves room 20% (obedience falls as victim gets closer and authority gets farther)

Observers underestimate obedience

psychiatrists predicted 1/10 of 1%; students said 15% would obey but only 1% of "us"

Fundamental attribution error

tendency to make dispositional attribution when we should make a situational attribution (blaming a person's personality for their actions while ignoring the situation)

Milgram ethics

criticized for stress and possible harm; led to stronger research ethics (informed consent, debriefing)

Conformity

changing one's behavior or beliefs because of the real or imagined influence of others (no authority required)

STUDY: Asch line study

participants judged which line matched; confederates all gave the wrong answer; about 1/3 of responses conformed even though the answer was obviously wrong

Stimulus ambiguity

the more unsure we are about a situation, the more likely we are to conform

Group size and conformity

larger groups produce more conformity, but the effect levels out after a point

Unanimity of the majority

even one dissenter makes us less likely to conform; more so if the dissent comes early

Idiosyncrasy credits

credit gained by conforming that can later be spent by going against the group

Why we conform

to be accepted by the group; we believe the group might be correct; the meaning of the stimulus may change

STUDY: Modal/deviate/slider

modal conforms, deviate does the opposite, slider starts as a deviate then conforms; modal was liked most, deviate least ("everyone likes a conformist")

Normative influence

another person's behavior provides information on what is appropriate; you change your behavior to fit in, gain social approval, or avoid rejection

Informational influence

phenomenon that occurs when another person's behavior provides information about what is good or true; you change because you believe the group has accurate information or knows more than you

Foot-in-the-door technique

an influence strategy that involves getting someone to agree to a large request by first having them say yes to a smaller, minor request (large favor alone under 20% compliance; small favor first over 55%); works through consistency / self-perception

Door-in-the-face technique

influence strategy that involves getting someone to accept a small request by first getting them to refuse a large request; works through reciprocal concessions

Reactance

an unpleasant feeling that arises when people feel they are being coerced

Aggression

behavior with the purpose of harming another

Hostile aggression

emotional, in-the-moment, anger-driven; the purpose is to harm someone who made us angry; not planned

Instrumental aggression

planned and goal-directed; minimal anger; the person is harmed because they have something we want or are in the way of a goal

Proactive aggression

aggression that is planned and purposeful

Reactive aggression

aggression that occurs spontaneously in response to a negative affective state

Frustration-aggression hypothesis

a principle stating that animals aggress when their goals are frustrated/obstructed (frustration = a blocked goal, not just annoyance)

Displaced aggression

the target of aggression is often not the original source of frustration (kicking the dog)

Psychoanalytic theory of aggression (Freud)

instincts toward life and death (love and hate); society siphons off the death instinct; aggressive energy dissipates

Ethological theory of aggression

instinct-based theory tied to animal models and evolution; aggression is destructive but useful for survival

Social learning theory of aggression

aggression is not instinct or necessary for survival and can occur without frustration; it is learned by watching others and being rewarded for it

Deindividuation

immersion in a group (or anonymity, e.g., costumes, masks) causes people to become less concerned with their personal values; reduces individual responsibility

STUDY: Forbidden toys (frustration)

children watched others play with toys behind a mesh wall, then played aggressively when allowed; supports frustration-aggression

STUDY: Puzzles/shocks/films

unsolvable puzzles plus insults and a boxing film led to the biggest shocks; more frustration = more aggression

STUDY: Bobo doll (Bandura; lecture + Hock)

children who watched an adult attack a Bobo doll imitated the exact acts (even without the model present or any reward); same-sex models had more influence and boys were more aggressive overall; concluded aggression is learned by observation and modeling; criticism: a doll is not a person

STUDY: Gun vs. badminton racket

like the puzzles study, but the presence of a gun in the room led to larger shocks; aggressive cues increase aggression

Modeling

learning by observing and imitating another person's behavior

Reducing aggression: what works

non-aggressive models; positive reinforcement; retaliation only works when the aggressor is not angry

Reducing aggression: what does not work

punishment (models aggression); retaliation against an angry aggressor (increases aggression); catharsis/pressure release (calms but aggression increases)

Violent pornography

increases aggression dramatically, primarily against women; static or non-violent pornography does not seem to increase aggression

STUDY: Robbers Cave (Sherif)

two groups at a summer camp; mere classification created in-group bias; competition bred hostility between groups and harmony within; superordinate goals (a problem one group cannot solve alone) promoted harmony between groups

In-group favoritism

tendency to treat people better when they are members of one's own group than when they are not

Competition between groups

breeds harmony within the group and hostility between groups

Superordinate goal / common enemy

cooperating to solve a problem one group cannot solve alone promotes harmony between groups

Stereotyping

thoughts about a group; includes perception of outgroup homogeneity ("all those people are alike"); can be conscious or unconscious

Outgroup homogeneity

perceiving members of the outgroup as all alike

Prejudice

feelings about a group; can be positive or negative

Discrimination

behavior toward a group based on stereotypes or prejudice

Self-fulfilling prophecy

an initial expectation, even if false, leads to behaviors that make the prediction come true (white interviewers sat farther away, made more errors, ended sooner with black interviewees, who then performed worse)

Behavioral confirmation

tendency of targets to behave as observers expect them to behave

Perceptual confirmation

tendency of observers to see what they expect to see

Stereotype threat

anxiety associated with the possibility of confirming other people's stereotype about your group

Scapegoating

social need for a target to blame when status declines (cotton prices down, lynching up; immigrants today)

Turning intergroup conflict into prejudice

feeling one's status is declining increases prejudice; economic and political competition over scarce resources increases prejudice; a "prejudiced personality" is usually not true; conformity to social norms

Reducing prejudice

intergroup contact under equal status and mutual interdependence; reduce economic conflict over scarce resources; reduce unnecessary competition

Group polarization

tendency of groups to make decisions more extreme than any member would have made alone

Groupthink

tendency of groups to reach consensus in order to achieve interpersonal harmony

Common knowledge effect

tendency for group discussions to focus on information that all members share

Attribution

inference about the cause of a person's behavior

Actor-observer effect

tendency to make situational attributions for our own behaviors while making dispositional attributions for the identical behavior of others

Sternberg's triangular theory of love

love has three components: intimacy, passion, and decision/commitment

Intimacy

feelings of closeness, connectedness, and bonding (operational definition: sharing something)

Passion

drive that leads to romance and physical attraction (operational definition: thinking about the other person)

Decision/commitment

the decision that one loves another and the commitment to maintain that love

Non-love

none of the three components

Liking

intimacy only

Infatuated love

passion only

Empty love

commitment only