PHIL 2320 Exam 1

Philosophy

Process of increasing understanding through systematic investigation and reflection

Ethics

Study of what we ought to do and how we ought to live

Environmental ethics

Branch of applied ethics concerning relationships between humans and the nonhuman world

Logic

Branch of philosophy asking what makes reasoning good

Metaphysics

Branch of philosophy asking what exists

Epistemology

Branch of philosophy asking what we can know

Aesthetics

Branch of philosophy asking what beauty is

Metaethics

Study of the basis and nature of morality

Normative ethics

Study of what we should do and the principles guiding actions

Applied ethics

Application of ethical reasoning to particular practical contexts

Instrumental value

Value something has because it provides usefulness or benefits to humans

Cultural value

Value nature has through tradition, identity, religion, history, or social relationships

Intrinsic value

Value something has in itself, independent of usefulness to humans

Anthropocentrism

View that places humans at the center of moral consideration

Non-anthropocentrism

View that at least some nonhumans have inherent worth

Moral status

The level of moral importance something has

Morally considerable

The extent to which something should be considered when making decisions affecting it

Directly morally considerable

An entity whose interests should be considered for its own sake

Indirectly morally considerable

Something considered because of its importance to something else

Inherent worth

Value something has because its interests matter for its own sake

Evaluative statement

A statement making a value judgment about something

Prescriptive statement

A statement about what ought to happen or what we should do

Longitudinal collective action problem

Ethical problem involving many people, actions over time, distant effects, and unclear individual responsibility

Industrial Revolution

Period that greatly increased humanity's ability to extract resources, produce goods, alter ecosystems, and produce waste

Environmental ethics central question 1

What is the proper relationship between humans and the nonhuman environment?

Environmental ethics central question 2

What values are possessed by environmental entities such as species, ecosystems, organisms, and landscapes?

Environmental ethics central question 3

What principles or rules do environmental values justify?

Environmental ethics central question 4

What do environmental principles imply about how we should interact with nature and live?

Economic/instrumental environmental concern

Concern based on nature's usefulness and benefits to humans

Cultural environmental concern

Concern based on nature's meaning and significance within human communities

Ecological/intrinsic environmental concern

Concern based on nature having value independent of human usefulness

OQCEDA

Observation, Question, Causes, Effects, Desirability, Action

Empirical claim

Claim based on observable facts or evidence

Predictive claim

Claim about expected future effects or consequences

Ethical evaluation

Judgment about whether something is good, bad, desirable, or undesirable

Prescriptive claim

Claim stating what we ought to do

Moral objectivism

View that objective moral truths exist

Moral non-objectivism

View that morality is not objective and moral facts do not exist

Moral skepticism

View that doubts or questions whether moral facts exist

Cultural relativism

View that moral truth is relative to groups or cultures

Individual relativism

View that moral truth is relative to individuals

Moral nihilism

View that moral judgments have no truth at all

Argument

Set of premises intended to provide support for a conclusion

Premise

Statement that provides logical support for a conclusion

Conclusion

Main claim an argument attempts to establish

Deductive argument

Argument intended to provide logically conclusive support

Valid argument

Deductive argument where true premises would require a true conclusion

Sound argument

Valid argument with true premises

Inductive argument

Argument intended to provide probable support for a conclusion

Strong argument

Inductive argument that provides very probable support

Cogent argument

Strong inductive argument with true premises

Acts and omissions

Distinction between causing something to happen and allowing it to happen without interfering

Nature

Can mean everything in the universe, things without human involvement, or the way things ought to be

Natural

Sometimes understood as untouched or unaffected by humans

Natural law theory

View that things have intended purposes or natural functions that guide morality

Natural law: right action

Action that follows an entity's natural purpose or function

Natural law: wrong action

Action that goes against an entity's natural purpose or function

Taoism

Philosophy/religion emphasizing harmony with nature and naturalness

Naturalness in Taoism

Original state of being before cultural influence

Mātauranga Māori

Traditional Māori knowledge emphasizing connectedness, relationships, genealogy, and intrinsic values

Kaitiaki

Guardians or caretakers of the world in Māori perspectives

Kaitiakitanga

Concept associated with guardianship and care for the natural world

Evolutionary ethics

Use of evolutionary theory to support moral claims

Problem with evolutionary ethics

Evolution has no moral goal or purpose and biological fitness depends on environmental conditions

John Stuart Mill's view of nature

Nature should not automatically be treated as a moral guide because nature often involves suffering and destruction

Argument from design

Argument that the complexity and design of nature implies a designer

Thomas Hobbes' view of nature

Nature involves struggle for survival and competition for resources

John Locke's view of nature

Nature gains value through human labor and invention

William Cronon's wilderness argument

Wilderness is a relatively recent romantic idea and focusing only on wilderness can obscure human-nature connections

Wilderness preservation concern

Overemphasis on wilderness can make humans seem separate from nature and ignore everyday environmental interactions

Balance of nature idea

View that nature is harmonious and human actions can disrupt that balance

Dynamic nature view

View that nature is constantly changing and humans are only one factor affecting it

Principle of Noninterference

Sandler's default position that interfering with nature is prima facie wrong

Problem with Noninterference

Complete noninterference is impossible and would make all technology and engineering problematic

GMO intrinsic objection

Claim that something about genetically modified organisms is inherently unacceptable

GMO extrinsic objection

Claim that genetically modified organisms have unacceptably negative consequences

Instrumental value

Value based on usefulness in providing a desired benefit or profit

Intrinsic/final value

Value something has in itself rather than because of its usefulness

Subjective value

Value based on an individual's evaluative attitudes or opinions

Objective value

Value based on properties existing independently of individual opinions

Aesthetic value

Value based on beauty or appearance

Economic value

Value based on monetary worth or financial benefit

Natural value

Value places or living things have independently of human influence

Externalities

External effects of human activities that should be included when evaluating environmental impacts

Natural capital

Nature's resources and services that provide value to humans and economies

Contingent valuation method

Method of assigning monetary value by asking how much people would pay to preserve a resource

Status quo bias

Tendency to prefer maintaining the current situation over creating something new

Incommensurability

Idea that environmental values cannot all be expressed using one common measure

Ecological restoration

Attempt to repair ecological damage and return ecosystems toward a desired condition

Katz's objection to ecological restoration

Restoration can be a technofix that does not actually recreate naturalness

Moral hazard

Situation where perceived protection from consequences encourages riskier behavior

Moral status

Level of moral importance an entity possesses

Anthropocentrism

Humans are the center of moral consideration and have the highest objective value

Participatory decision-making argument

Because nonhumans cannot participate in decisions, only human interests can be included

Ratiocentrism

View that the ability to reason gives an entity moral considerability

Moral agent

Being capable of making morally responsible decisions

Objection to ratiocentrism

It could deny inherent worth to infants, children, or unconscious humans

Sentientism

View that the ability to experience pleasure and pain gives moral status

Speciesism

Unfairly treating beings differently based on species when species difference is morally irrelevant

Peter Singer on speciesism

Moral consideration should depend on morally relevant similarities and differences, not species membership