sociology midterm

sociology

the study of how societies are organized and how the organization of a society influences the behavior of people living in it

sociological imagination

ability to think about one’s personal experience in relation to larger social forms

structural functionalism

views society as a stable, ordered system where institutions work together to maintain a social equilibrium—inequality and change

conflict theory

sees society as groups of people competing for power and resources

symbolic interactions

examines how much individuals draw meaning through everyday interactions

ethical principles

informed consent, right to withdraw, privacy, and confidentiality

nonresponsive bias

happens when certain groups are less likely to respond, can skew results and reduce representativeness

spuriousness

a third variable causes both observed variables

social status

a person’s or group’s socially determined positions within a larger group or society

social role

set of expectations about the behavior and attitudes of people with a particular social status

agency

our ability to act given the structural rules and resources which impact our behavior

life chances

structured opportunities to secure goods, conditions, and experiences across a lifetime

groups

two or more people with similar values and expectations who interact with one another on a regular basis; provide norms and support

networks

a series of social relationships that link a person directly to other individuals and indirectly to even more people; they can constrain or empower access

institutions

the enduring domains of social life (ex. family, education, government, economy, religion) that provide resources and impose rules

socialization

experiences that teach norms, values, and roles; identity formation is lifelong

identity

describes our roles, traits, and affiliations

self-concept

thoughts/feelings about ourselves as physical, social, emotional beings

structures of opportunity

distributions of resources/opportunities shaping the choices individuals make

reflexivity

evaluating rules we’re expected to follow, resources we have/can obtain, and our position in the social world

culture

includes beliefs, values, practices, and expressive activities

collective representations

bundles of material and symbolic culture

high culture

elite tastes (ex. opera, fine art)

popular culture

mass-produced, widely consumed (ex. pop music, fast food)

culture industries

a system of organizations that produce and distribute cultural goods (ex. music, food, fashion, art,etc)

corporate consolidation

large corporations acquiring smaller ones

diversity capital

corporations supporting cultural institutions to improve their reputations

conspicuous consumption

displaying wealth or status through cultural goods

code switching

adapting behavior, language, or presentation based on context

cultural toolkit

a repertoire of values, habits, and skills we draw on situationally

cultural capital

non-economic resources that help people navigate institutions

habitus

deeply internalized dispositions shaped by social position

fields

social arenas like professionals, schools, or communities

symbolic behaviors

conceptual distinctions between groups

boundary work

actively creating and maintaining symbolic boundries

cultural diffusion

the sharing of cultural ideas, practices, and goods between groups

acculturaion

adopting and adapting elements from another culture

globalization

the worldwide exchange of people, goods, and culture

cultural imperialism

dominant groups impose their culture on others

cultural appropriation

adopting cultural elements from marginalized groups, often without credit or benefit

culture jamming

using familiar symbols to disrupt dominant messages

stratification

any system that ranks categories of people in a hierarchy

wealth

total value of assets, including savings, investments, inheritance, home ownership, and other property

capitalist class

income from ownership rather than labor, wealth is often inherited and self-perpetuating

upper-middle class

highly educated professionals, working rich who still depend on employment over ownership

middle class

some postsecondary education; relatively stable employment; stability is real but contingent on the economy holding

working class

retail, factory, service, and office support jobs; less autonomy, fewer benefits, more exposure to economic shifts

working poor

employed but unable to meet basic needs, work does not guarantee security—worked over 27 weeks but still below poverty line

underclass

unemployed or underpaid; may rely on public assistance; face barriers to education, employment, and housing

social mobility

movement between social class positions

metiocracy

success is based on effort and ability

cumulative advantage

advantages build up over time and through generations

absolute poverty

lacking basic needs (food, shelter, clothes)

relative poverty

falling below prevailing standards of living

homelessness

lacks a fixed, regular, adequate nighttime residence

sex

the different biological and physiological characteristics of males and females

gender

socially constructed characteristics of women and men

intersectionality

the ways in which different types of social relations are linked together in complex ways, creating different experiences for different groups

reproductive justice

right to maintain bodily autonomy, to have or not have children, and to safely parent

race

a social classification system based on perceived physical traits

ethnicity

shared culture, ancestry, history, or religion

eugenics

pseudoscience aimed at improving genetic “purity”

bias

the tendency to favor or disfavor something, regardless of specific detail—can be unconscious

explicit bias

conscious bias or attitude

implicit bias

unconscious, automatic associations

internalized bias

occurs when marginalized individuals adopt negative beliefs about their own group

stereotypes

shared beliefs about traits of a group

prejudice

preconceived attitudes towards members of another group

Allport’s contact theory

to reduce prejudice, interaction between group members must be equal status, cooperative, repeated, voluntary, and institutionally supported

individual racism

personal beliefs or actions rooted in racial prejudice

institutional racism

policies and practices that produce unequal outcomes, even without overt intent