Game Species Mgmt Exam 2

The weight and skeletal size of white-tailed deer fawns

Dependent on the nutritional status of the doe and the number of embryos in utero.

Major Glands of the White-tailed Deer: forehead, preorbital, tarsal glands

• Forehead glands(between antlers)- secretions are left during the breeding season when bucks make ‘rub’, scent is specific, local bucks can identify the scent and know the dominance status

• Preorbital glands(corner of eyes)- secretions contain pheromones; male deer often leave secretions on sticks to mark their scent, local bucks identify scent and know dominance status

• Metatarsal glands(outside of hind legs)- warning of danger, ID, potentially thermoregulation

• Tarsal glands( inside of hind legs)- used to identify individuals and assess dominance, used to determine reproductive status, more dominant=stronger urine smell

• Interdigital glands- helps deer track one another

Female herd behavior (white tail)

Matriarchal Family Unit- females appear to be one family often encompassing the offspring of 2 breeding seasons, females will often concentrate in large groups but there are individually “family groups” within the larger grouping

Male herd behavior during the nonbreeding season (white tail)

Males form bachelor herds of 2-5 animals, group membership is not as stable, the males will establish a dominance hierarchy, disband prior to rut

Breeding activity (white tail)

The seasonally polyestrus breeding activity of white-tailed deer (the rut) is synchronized by photoperiod but allows considerable temporal variation in breeding dates among regions and even populations within an area. Seasonal timing of reproduction by temperate species allows the most-energy-demanding phases of the reproductive cycle (i.e., late pregnancy and lactation) to coincide with the period of maximum food abundance and quality.

Bucks detect estrus via visual and olfactory cues. Volatile compounds produced in the female’s reproductive tract are a source of sexually attractive odors. Urinary compounds are analyzed by the vomeronasal system. Animals obtain olfactory information through openings in the palate that lead to the vomeronasal organ (also called the Jacobson’s organ). Some mammals, especially members of the deer family, will enhance their sense of smell by increasing the exposure of the vomeronasal organ through a behavior referred to as lip-curling or “flehmen ”. Flehmen often occurs when males are assessing the reproductive status of females.

Predation (white tail)

free roaming dogs (most important predator)

Social Grooming and the nonbreeding season (white tail)

• females associate with related individuals to the exclusion of unrelated animals, but when relatives are not present, the appear to establish and maintain bonds with unrelated females using social grooming

• social grooming in bucks appears to function as a means of promoting cohesion among members of bachelor groups. Bucks become familiar and establish a dominance heiarchy.

EHD and CWD

• Epizootic Hemorrhagic Disease (EHD) - viral disease that is highly transmittable, sudden to onset symptoms, deer lose weiriness, stop eating, become weak and have excess saliva. Internal lesions are characteristic- extensive hemorrhaging of any or all organs can occur. Spread by a biting insect (midge)

• Chronic Waisting Disease (CWD)- fatal neurological disease caused by prions, loss of body condition, excess salivation, generally always fatal. Spread via saliva of infected and eating infected plants.

Habitat Management and Techniques that have been employed to develop and/or maintain white-tailed deer habitat

Management goals of Trophy Deer Management vs Quality Deer Management (QDM)

Management issues of importance with overabundant deer populations: impacts of deer on forest species composition and plant succession

Deer have been found to not only have a direct EFFECT on forest regeneration by browsing on seedlings but also can indirectly EFFECT the development of regeneration by changing the composition of the herbaceous understory vegetation, which, in turn, affects the growth and survival of tree seedlings (think forest succession).

Assessing Body Condition in Big Game Mammals

• Body mass (body weight…weigh the animal)…indirect indicator of habitat quality and provides TREND DATA.

• Femur marrow fat.  Marrow fat is the last fat in the body to be mobilized (broken down and used for energy). Femur marrow fat is a good indicator of malnourishment . To assess marrow fat, saw or break the femur and remove a section of marrow and assess the color and texture of the marrow.Good body condition: marrow is white and has a firm texture.Poor body condition: marrow is reddish color and has a jelly-like texture

• Body fat indices. In deer, biologists will measure the fat stored on the back and brisket and abdominal fat around the kidney (KFI = kidney fat index) to determine a body fat index. High amounts of fat indicate an animal in Good condition .

• Urine samples (urinary urea levels). Urinary urea is a relatively direct reflection of the blood urea concentration; urinary urea excretion increases with prolonged starvation. To assess urinary urea levels, you can collect samples of urine that may be either diluted or concentrated, e.g., collecting snow urine samples. 

• Fecal samples (fecal nitrogen levels).  Fecal protein concentrations are directly related to dietary nitrogen and digestibility. As dietary protein and digestibility increase, the excretion of nitrogen increases ... indicating a good quality diet.

Nesting Ecology: Importance of edge habitat (ruffed grouse)

In general, birds nesting in edge habitat are thought to reduce nest success by increasing exposure to predators that are more abundant in edge habitats. In the Appalachians, ruffed grouse nest success was lower farther from a road or opening. Grouse are a disturbance-dependent species and are likely adapted to nesting in edge habitat. Their excellent camouflage, high nest attentiveness, and aggressive behavior when confronted by predators all likely reduce predation and may contribute to why these birds can be more successful in edge areas than other species.

Brood Habitat (ruffed grouse)

Ruffed grouse brood habitat is influenced by the need of the chicks during late May-August to locate invertebrates and green vegetation for food while avoiding predators. To meet these needs, hens in the Appalachians move broods into areas with well developed over-story canopies (protection from avian predators) and  low stem density understory vegetation (chicks can easily move through the vegetation finding invertebrate food). If the understory is too dense, the birds will not use the area.

Chick Survival & Mortality (ruffed grouse)

Ruffed grouse chick survival in the Appalachian is poor typically 22% of chicks survive to 35 days of age. The low survival in the first week of life is primarily a result of high incidence of whole-brood loss, with nearly 33% of broods lost during the first week.  Although reported to occur in other regions, whole-brood loss during the first couple of weeks appears to be more common in the Appalachian region. Exposure (weather & chicks in poor condition) and predation are the major sources of mortality for ruffed grouse chicks in the Appalachians.

Adult Survival & Mortality (ruffed grouse)

Annual survival rates (estimated proportion of animals that survive to the next season) of adult grouse range from 44% to 53%.  Predation by raptors (especially Cooper’s hawks, red-tail hawks and owls) during the Fall and Spring (during peak raptor migrations) is a major source of death for grouse.  Timing of raptor migrations should be taken into account when setting hunting seasons for ruffed grouse.

Mating & ‘Drumming’(ruffed grouse)

The ruffed grouse relies entirely on a non-vocal acoustic courtship display, known as ‘drumming_’. The drumming itself is a rapid, wing-beating display that creates a low frequency sound, starting slow and speeding up (the bird does not beat the log with its wings). It is a low frequency sound that can travel through dense vegetation and be heard up to a quarter of a mile away.  In the Spring a drumming male advertises his location to hens in an attempt to attract a mate. Courtship is brief, lasting a few minutes, then the hen leaves. There is no further association between the male and his mate…or the brood of chicks the hen produces. Ruffed grouse drumming sites are typically on downed trees ‘drumming logs’) located on or near ridge tops in mature forest stands and not far from openings, e.g.,forest roads. The drumming site is the focal point in a male’s home range, and is used in both Spring and Fall.

Forest Management: preferred timber harvest method (ruffed grouse)

Forest Management:shelterwood cutting: maintaining the uneven-aged forest and providing nesting and brood habitat. For ruffed grouse management, shelterwood harvest is preferred over clearcutting because with the shelterwood system you can retain mature, mast-producing species. It is critical that high-quality mast producing trees (especially oaks) are retained.

Forest Roads & “daylighting” a road (ruffed grouse)

old logging roads are valuable habitat for ruffed grouse in the Appalachians. Roads should be closed to the public (this is essential!) and if natural succession has not occurred, planted with with wheat and clover and a mixture of cool season and warm season grass species.   For plantings to work, you may need to “daylight” the road. To achieve adequate germination and growth after seeding logging roads, the road should receive at least 4 hours of sunlight per day. To get adequate amounts of sunlight, you may need to ‘daylight’ the road; remove select trees along one or both sides of the road (at least 30 feet back from the edge of the road). Not all trees need to be removed, remove the species that provide little benefit to grouse.

Prescribed Fire (ruffed grouse)

 low intensity, dormant-season fire on a 6-8 year rotation can be used in mature oak-hickory stands with a broken canopy_ (20-40% opening)

Habitat: Fall & Winter (turkey)

 Mature forest stands, bottomland hardwoods, and riparian areas are heavily used as thermal cover.During Fall and Winter, turkeys usually associate in flocks by sex and age

Importance of the ‘breast sponge’(turkey)

 Gobblers at this time are developing their breast sponge , fatty tissue that provides energy during the spring breeding rituals (a time when gobblers do very little feeding).

Nesting habitat & ‘backstop’ (turkey)

Turkey nest sites are usually associated with abundant herbaceous vegetation and some woody shrub vegetation. Most nests are located under or adjacent to some form of structure, (backstop) such as a tree stump, logging slash, brush pile, or tangled vines. The nest site often is located with 100 yards of some kind of forest opening [which could be a roadway, power line right-of-ways (ROWs) or food plot)

Sources of adult & juvenile mortality (turkey)

Adult- adult turkey mortality is typically very high Mortality for hens is highest during the nesting and brooding season and predators are mainly responsible. In the South, free ranging dogs, research indicates hunting is the main mortality factor for male wild turkeys.

Juvenile- Mortality of young turkey poults less than 2 weeks old (before they are able to fly and roost in trees) is very  usually <50% of poults survive. Raccoons and skunks are considered the main nest and poult predators.Predicted daily survival for broods decreases rapidly with increasing distance moved during the initial 3 days after hatching; if chicks have to move very far to find foraging areas they die! The most critical period for brood survival is the first week after hatch day.

Food habits of adults & juveniles (turkey)

Juveniles- Within a month of age, the diet of young turkey’s changes from mainly animal matter to predominantly plant material,food items typically associated with old fields and shrub habitat.

Adults-  soft mast (fruits of shrubs  like dogwood, blackberry, huckleberry), fruits of vines (poison ivy, grape), hard mast (especially oaks, pecan, hackberry, blackgum), and crops (corn, soybeans)…. food items typically associated with old fields, shrub habitat, mature forests, and agricultural land.

Characteristics of brood feeding habitat (turkey)

(idk) Poults feed constantly, consuming mostly arthropods (e.g., beetles, true bugs, grasshoppers), soft mast, and seeds of graminoids. ….food items typically associated with old fields and shrub habitat.

Avian Pox & ‘Blackhead’ Disease

Avian pox- The virus may be transmitted by contact with or ingestion of infectious scabs, inhalation of viral particles, or by blood-sucking arthropods, especially mosquitos.   

‘Blackhead’ disease- Histomoniasis is caused by a protozoan is carried by a nematode (roundworm). The disease will cause necrosis of the liver, may be transmitted by the nematode through turkey feces or by consumption of earthworms which have ingested the infected nematodes.

Forest Management: Uneven-aged stands in hardwood dominated landscapes (turkey)

In hardwood dominated landscapes: (1) an uneven-aged forest populated by mast producing species, (2) bottomland hardwood and riparian vegetation for winter habitat (thermal cover), (3) forest openings dominated by grass and shrub species for nesting and brood habitat.

Population Ecology: Reproduction (bobwhite)

Bobwhites have a complex mating system combining elements of 

 And . Bobwhites have a rather long nesting season, extending from mid-June thru mid-August.Female bobwhite usually incubate the first clutch. If the first nest is destroyed, the female may lay a second clutch (double clutching) that is incubated by herself or a male.Females will renest multiple times in an effort to successfully hatch a clutch. Bobwhite nest success is rather low, averaging 30-45%.

Brood Ecology: Brood-rearing habitat (bobwhite)

When a clutch hatches, the attending adult leads the chicks to brood rearing habitat. Brood-rearing habitat typically has broad-leaved herbaceous vegetation with 20-50% bare ground, an abundance of insects, and scattered shrubs or brush for thermal cover..

Adult Survival: male vs female overwinter mortality (bobwhite)

Predation associated with incubation and brood-rearing may reduce survival of reproductively active birds by 20%.  In addition, females typically suffer greater overwinter mortality than males…..so it becomes extremely important to monitor populations if they are hunted.  During the breeding season, parental involvement in reproduction reduces survival for both male and female bobwhite.

Feeding habits of adults and chicks: Spring & Summer (bobwhite)

Adults- During the breeding season bobwhite consume mainly weed seeds, soft mast (blackberry, blueberry, huckleberry), hard mast (acorns, red maple samaras, lespedeza), and corn.

Chicks-  Chicks meet their protein requirements mainly by eating 

invertebrates (beetles, grasshoppers, crickets).

Winter Habitat Use: Woody Escape & Thermal Cover (bobwhite)

During Winter, bobwhite require 3 essential habitat components; 1) woody or brushy cover, 2) adequate and accessible food resources, and 

3) grassland or annual weed communities.

The presence of dense understory vegetation is a vital component of bobwhite Winter covey headquarters. The vertical structure of dense woody cover reduces wind speed at ground level, reducing thermoregulatory costs during cold weather.  

Management approaches used in forested and agricultural habitat (bobwhite)

Forested- prescribed fire, clear cuts, herbicides

Agricultural- no till, eliminate litter accumulation in grasslands, food plots seeded with variety