Anatomy test 2

What nitrogen bases are present in RNA?

Adenine, Cytosine, Guanine, and Uracil

What nitrogen bases are in DNA?

Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine, and Guanine

Complementary mRNA sequence from DNA sequence code

Thymine= Adenine Adenine= Uracil Cytosine= Guanine

What part of the pre-mRNA transcript remains in the nucleus?

Introns

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What part of the pre-mRNA transcript exits the nucleus for translation?

Exons

What is translation?

Converting the genetic code carried by the mRNA into the sequence of amino acids that becomes a protein

What are the stages of translation?

Initiation, elongation and termination

What is initiation?

Binding of a ribosome to an mRNA transcript. AUG (methionine) is the Start codon

What is elongation?

Recognition and binding of an mRNA anticodon with the next mRNA codon. Once the complementary bases are bound, the tRNA adds an amino acid. The ribosome reads the mRNA strand, growing a polypeptide chain as each new amino acid is attached.

What is termination?

Elongation continues until the final codon (UAA, UAG or UGA) on the mRNA is reached, acting as a “stop” signal that stops translation and releases a protein

What are the stages of the cell cycle in order?

Interphase, Prophase, Prometaphase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase, Cytokinesis

What is mitosis?

The division of the nucleus

What is cytokinesis?

The division of the cytoplasma

What is metaphase?

Chromosomes are pulled towards the center and align in the middle. M checkpoint delays anaphase until kinetochores are attached properly

What is the metaphase plate?

The plane where the cell is divided.

What is the purpose of cell division?

It’s used for reproduction, repair, growth, and replacement of old cells

What are stem cells?

Unspecified cells that can divide indefinitely and sometimes change into specialized cells

What is a totipotent stem cell?

A stem cell that can turn into any cell needed for growth and development

What is a pluripotent stem cell?

A stem cell that can turn into any cell that isn’t needed for growth and development

What is a multipotent stem cell?

A stem cell that can turn into cells within a cell lineage

What is an oligopotent stem cell?

A stem cell that can turn into a few different types of cells

What is a unipotent stem cell?

A stem cell that can only turn into its own specific cell type

What is the Connective Tissue Proper?

Lose CT, areolar CT, adipose, reticular CT

What are the Supportive CTs?

Cartilage and bone

What are the Liquid CTs?

Blood and lymph

What are protein fibers?

Long molecules composed of multiple fibrous subunits with a ropelike structure

What are collagen fibers?

20-25% of the proteins in the body, made of multiple repeated subunits, form white fibrous protein, resistant to tension and pressure

What are elastic fibers

Elastin is surrounded by glycoproteins, extensible to let fibers stretch up to 1 ½ times their resting length without breaking before returning to normal

What are reticular fibers?

Thin, short collagen fibers, meshwork that supports cells and the ground substance of many tissues, a web-like structure in organs that helps trap foreign cells

What are mucous membranes located?

Line all passaged opening to the outside of the body. Digestive, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive tracts

Where are serous membranes located?

Line body cavities closed to the exterior of the body. Peritoneal, pleural, pericardial cavities

Where are the synovial membranes located?

Line the membraned of freely movable joints and joint cavities

What are cell junctions?

Neighboring cell plasma membranes are linked by integral proteins

What are tight junctions?

An intracellular junction made of an interwoven chain of polypeptides that form a tight, waterproof connection between neighboring cells

What are desmosomes?

Adhesion junction that consists of cytoplasmic plaques and transmembrane proteins that firmly connect neighboring cells, even under repeated mechanical stress

What are gap junctions?

Uses membrane channels that allow transport directly from one cell to another without having to cross the plasma membrane for rapid communication between cells

What is the structure and function of a simple squamous tissue?

It consists of a singular layer of flattened cells used for diffusion

What is the structure and function of a simple cuboidal tissue?

It consists of a single layer of cube-shaped cells used for diffusion

What is the structure and function of a simple columnar tissue?

It consists of a single layer of rectangular cells used for secretion and absorption

What is the structure and function of a pseudostratified columnar tissue?

It consists of false layers of rectangular cells used for secretion

What is the structure and function of nonkeratinized stratified squamous tissue?

It consists of top layers of flattened cells used to keep surfaces moist and prevent friction damage

What is the structure and function of keratinized stratified squamous tissue?

It consists of top layers of flattened dead cells filled with keratin used to make tissue tough and prevent friction damage

What is the structure and function of a stratified cuboidal tissue?

It consists of 2 layers of square cells used for protection

What is the structure and function of a stratified columnar tissue?

2-3 laters where the top layer is columnar and the basal layer is cuboidal and its used for absorption and secretion

What is the structure of a transitional tissue?

Basal layers are cuboidal, and the top layers are dome-shaped, but the latter are only relaxed tissue. It’s used for organs and organ systems that need to stretch

What are the main tissue types?

Epithelial, muscle, nervous, and connective tissues

Where is the simple squamous tissue located?

It’s in the alveoli of the lungs and renal capsules

Where is the simple cuboidal tissue located?

It’s in the renal tubed, respiratory tract, ducts of glands and thyroid gland

Where is the simple columnar tissue located?

It’s in the uterine tubes, small intestine, and respiratory tract

Where is the pseudostratified columnar tissue located?

It’s in the respiratory tract and nasal cavity

Where is the nonkeratinized stratified squamous tissue located?

It’s in the mouth, throat, esophagus, anus, and vagina

Where is the keratinized stratified squamous tissue located?

It’s in the outer layers of skin

Where is the stratified cuboidal tissue located?

It lines the ducts of sweat glands

Where is the stratified columnar tissue located?

It’s in the male urethra, cornea, ducts of certain and salivary glands

Where is the transitional tissue?

It’s in the urinary system, kidney, uterus, bladder and urethra

What are the 3 types of glands?

Merocrine, apocrine, and holocrine glands

What do merocrine glands do?

They release product through a secretory vesicle

What do apocrine glands do?

They release product by breaking off a portion of the cell containing the product

What do holocrine glands do?

The entire cell ruptures, releasing the product and killing the cell

What is the structure and function of the areolar CT?

It’s made of the collagen and elastic fibers present in a scattered arrangement and has a gel-like ground substance. It forms thin membranes

What is the structure and function of adipose tissue?

It’s filled with adipocytes, the body's surrounding fibroblasts, and ECM. It’s used for fat storage (major energy reserve), insulation (retains warmth), and shock absorption and protection

What is the structure and function of the reticular CT?

It’s composed of thin reticular fibers and it’s used to support the walls of internal organs

What is the structure and function of the regular dense CT?

It’s a fine network of elastic fibers and closely packed collagenous fibers. It binds body parts together

What is the structure and function of the irregular dense CT?

It’s randomly organized, thick, interwoven collagenous fibers and can withstand tension exerted in different directions

What is the structure and function of the elastic CT?

It contains lots of elastic fibers and not a lot of collagenous fibers with fibroblasts. Its elasticity lets it stretch and return to its original shape after stretching

What is the structure and function of hyaline cartilage tissue?

Its ECM is mostly ground substance made of small bundles of fine collagen in a dense, gel-like consistency. It provides a framework for bone growth and reduces friction along joints

What is the structure and function of fibrocartilage?

It’s made of bundles of collagen fibers that fill the ECM and little room for ground substance and elastic fibers

What is the structure and function of the elastic cartilage?

It’s made of elastic fibers in the ECM and provides flexible support and allows tissue to vibrate

What is the structure and function of bone?

It’s made of an ECM that’s 35% collagen fibers and ground substance while 65% is calcium phosphate crystals. It protects internal organs and supports the body

What is the structure and function of blood?

It’s cells suspended in a fluid matrix (plasma) that’s used to transport nutrients, oxygen, and immune cells

What is the structure and function of skeletal muscle tissue?

Long cylindrical fiber, striated, many peripherally located nuclei and it’s used for voluntary movement, produces heat, and protects organs

What is the structure and function of the cardiac muscle tissue?

Short, branched, striated, single central nucleus that contracts to pump blood

What is the structure and function of smooth muscle tissue?

Short spindle shaped no evident striations; single nucleus in each fiber. It’s used for involuntary movement, moves food, controls breathing, moves secretions, and regulates flow of blood

What are the main 2 types of nervous tissue?

Neurons and neuroglial cells

What are neurons?

Nervous tissue that sends and receives messages in the brain

What are neuroglial cells?

Nervous tissue that supports neuron activities

What is necrosis?

Accidental cell death that causes inflammation

What are the changes that occur in the tissues during aging?

A decrease in height, tissues become thinner, lose mass that results in atrophy, and cells are less able to divide and regenerate

What are goblet cells?

Stem cells that secrete mucin and create a protective layer of mucus

What tissues have goblet cells?

Pseudostratified columnar epithelium and simple columnar

What do goblet cells do in the respiratory tract?

They make mucus that traps dust, smoke, bacteria, and viruses to keep them from damaging lung tissue

What do goblet cells do in the digestive tract?

It forms a layer of mucus that protects stomach lining and intestines

What is a fibroblast?

The most abundant cell type in a connective tissue that secretes protein fibers and matrix in the extracellular space

What are adipocytes?

CT cells that store lipids as droplets that fill most of the cytoplasm

What is a chondrocyte?

Cartilage cells

What is an osteoblast?

Bone cell that makes new bones placed on the outer surface of existing bones

What is an osteocyte?

Osteoblasts that have surrounded themselves with ECM in lacunae and are responsible for bone maintenance

What is an osteoclast?

Large multinucleated bone destroyers in charge of resorption, secrete hydrogen and enzymes that breakdown both inorganic and organic ECM

What are the primary functions of the skin?

Protects from mechanical trauma, pathogens, and environment, enable nervous system to perceive changes in body’s internal and external surroundings, and thermoregulation and excretes waste products and toxins

What are the layers of skin?

Epidermis and dermis

What is the epidermis?

The top most layer of skin made up of mostly keratinocytes

What is the dermis?

The layer below the epidermis, provides blood supply and anchors the epidermis in place, and contains sensory receptors

What are the layers of the epidermis from superficial to deep?

Stratum corneum, stratum lucidum, stratum granulosum, and stratum spinosum

What is the stratum corneum?

The outer layer that’s made up of several layers of dead flattened keratinocytes with thickened plasma membranes

What is the stratum lucidum?

Narrow layer of clear, dead keratinocytes and is only found in thick skin

What is the stratum granulosum?

3-5 layers of cells with a prominent cytoplasmic granule with keratin bundles or lipid base substance

What is the stratum spinosum?

The thickest layer and placed on top of stratum basale while still close to blood supply

What is the stratum basale?

It’s a single layer of stem cells resting on basement membrane, melanocytes are present at this layer

What is the layer only found in thick skin?

Stratum lucidum

What are the cells found in the epidermis?

Keratinocytes, dendritic cells, merkel cells, and melanocytes