Psychology Units 1 & 2 Chapter 1 & 2

Cognitive Development: Paiget, Ainsworth, Erikson

Development

Changes in an organism that occur over time

Emotional Development

Changes in how a person experiences, expresses, interprets and deals with different feelings

Cognitive Development

Changes in an individual's mental abilities over time

Social Development

Involves changes in an individual's relationships and skills when interacting with others

Physical Development

Involves changes in the body and its various systems

Infancy

Birth-2 years

Childhood

2-12 years

Adolescence

12-20 years

Early Adulthood

20-40 years

Middle Age

40-65 years

Older Age

65+ years

Developmental Norms

The typical characteristics and abilities which are considered appropriate for a child’s age or stage of development

Hereditary/Nature Factors

The exchange of genes from biological parents to their offspring

Environmental/Nurture Factors

The experiences and events exposed throughout a person's lifestyle

Biopsychosocial Model

Refers to psychological development through the interactions of biological, psychological, and social factors

Biological Factors

Physiologically based or determined influences

Psychological Factors

Involve all internal mental processes and influences

Social Factors

Involve influences from an external social environment

Attachment

The emotional bond which forms between an infant and caregiver

The Strange Situation

A test for measuring the relationship between an infant and parent, usually conducted during infancy between 9-18 months old

Ainsworth’s Theory of Attachment

Believed that the quality of care an infant receives leads to different types of attachment styles

Secure Attachment

Shows a balance between dependence on caregiver and exploration. Children coming to expect that their caregiver will be there when needed

Secure Attachment: Impact on later Emotional Development

Able to form healthy and strong emotional bonds and relationships, independent, high levels of self-esteem and resilience

Insecure Avoidant Attachment

Doesn't seek closeness or contact with the caregiver. Children coming to expect that their caregiver will not be there when needed

Insecure Avoidant Attachment: Impact on later Emotional Development

May find it difficult to form strong bonds and intimate relationships, tend to ignore or dismiss their own emotions, avoids depending on others and asking for help

Insecure Resistant Attachment

Appears inconsolable around caregiver. When parent's are inconsistent when responding to their child's needs

Insecure Resistant Attachment: Impact on later Emotional Development

May heavily depend on others for support, seeks others to ‘complete them’

Harlow's Theory of Attachment

Showing how contact comfort and emotional support is more important to infants than survival

Assimilation

Taking new information and fitting it into an already existing idea (schema)

Accomodation

Changing an existing mental idea (schema) to fit new information

Schema

A mental idea of what something is and how to act on it

Stage 1: Sensorimotor Stage Lifespan

0-2 years old

Object Permanence (Stage 1: Sensorimotor Stage)

Learning that a person or object still exists although they cannot see it

Goal-directed Behaviour (Stage 1: Sensorimotor Stage)

Doing things with a predetermined purpose

Stage 2: Pre-operational Stage Lifespan

2-7 years old

Symbolic Thinking (Stage 2: Pre-operational Stage)

The ability to use symbols to represent objects that are not physically present

Egocentrism (Stage 2: Pre-operational Stage)

To perceive the world only from one's own point of view

Animism (Stage 2: Pre-operational Stage)

The belief that everything that exists has some kind of consciousness

Transformation (Stage 2: Pre-operational Stage)

Understanding that something can change from one state to another

Centration (Stage 2: Pre-operational Stage)

To focus on only one quality or feature of an object

Reversibility (Stage 2: Pre-operational Stage)

The ability to mentally follow a sequence of events back to its starting point

Stage 3: Concrete Operational Stage Lifespan

7-12 years old

Conservation (Stage 3: Concrete Operational Stage)

Understanding that an object does not change its volume, mass or area even if its shape or appearance has changed

Classification (Stage 3: Concrete Operational Stage)

The ability to organise information based on categories or common features

Stage 4: Formal Operational Stage

12+ years old

Abstract Thought (Stage 4: Formal Operational Stage)

Considering concepts that are intangible (eg; love)

Logic (Stage 4: Formal Operational Stage)

To consider problems or scenarios from multiple pathways

Strengths of Piaget's Theory

Gives a baseline of the expected stage a child's cognitive development should be at

Limitations of Piaget's Theory

Experimented on his own children, age ranges between stages is too specific, children can achieve tasks earlier

Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development

Believed that social development occurred through psychological and social aspects

Stage 1: Trust vs Mistrust

Birth-18 months

Trust

Refers to the views infants develop about the environment

Mistrust

Occurs when the care the child receives is irregular or rejecting

Stage 2: Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt

18 months-3 years old

Autonomy

Refers to the ability to do things independently, feeling self-confidence and self-control

Shame & Doubt

Refers to being to dependent on others, lack of self-confidence

Stage 3: Initiative vs Guilt

3-5 years old

Initiative

Being able to plan, think and carry out tasks for yourself

Guilt

About going too far and overstepping boundaries, asking too many inappropriate questions

Stage 4: Industry vs Inferiority

5-12 years old

Industry

Refers to a child's ability to work hard and take pride in their accomplishments

Inferiority

The feeling of being "less than" others

Stage 5: Identity vs Identity Confusion

12-18 years old

Identity

Refers to an individuals overall image of themselves

Identity Confusion

Refers to an individual not knowing who they are and where they belong

Stage 6: Intimacy vs Isolation

18-25 years old

Intimacy

Refers to the ability to care and share with another person without fear of losing them

Isolation

Refers to the sense of being alone without anyone to share with or care for

Stage 7: Generativity vs Stagnation

25-65 years old

Generativity

Refers to a person's concern about others beyond their immediate family, focusing on the future generation

Stagnation

Refers to a person focusing too much on their own needs and comforts, showing a lack of personal growth

Stage 8: Integrity vs Despair

65+ years old

Integrity

Refers to feeling a sense of satisfaction and fulfilment with one’s life, believing their life has been meaningful and valuable

Despair

Refers to bitter feelings of hopelessness from missed opportunities and mistakes in one’s life

Sensitive period

A period of development in which it is optimal to learn a specific function or skill

Critical Period

A period in which learning a specific function or skill is crucial for development

Imprinting

A process in which a young animal attaches to the first object visually, auditory or tactically and therefore follows and forms an attachment to that object

Typical behaviour

Behaviour that would typically occur and is appropriate in given situations

Atypical behaviour

Behaviour that is remarkably different in some way from what is expected in a given situation

Social norms

Widely held standards that govern what people should and should not do in different situations, especially with other people

Cultural perspectives

Refers to each culture or ethnic group having its own set of norms on what is considered appropriate behaviour

Statistical rarity

Something that lies outside the range of being statistically normal, being seen as unusual and unique

Personal distress

Is a strong, natural response to certain events

Adaptive behaviour

Behaviour that allows an individual to adjust to a situation appropriately and effectively

Maladaptive behaviour

Behaviour that is counterproductive and interferes with an individuals ability to adjust to a situation affectively

Normality

Ways that a person thinks, feels and behaves that indicates they are able to perform everyday tasks at a required level

Abnormality

Anything irregular from what is considered normal or healthy

Neurotypical

People whose neurological development and cognitive functioning is typically that of the general population

Neurodiversity

People whose neurological development and cognitive functioning are atypical and therefore differ from what is considered typical in the general population

Autism

A neurodevelopmental disorder that affects the way people communicate and interact with others and the world

Autism (key characteristics)

Language/Speech: limited range of facial expressions, speech is usually mechanical and monotone, repeating words or phrases

Social interactions: not engaging or starting social interactions with others, not sharing their emotions, avoiding eye contact, no response to physical touch, unlikely to engage in pretend play

Autism (risks + contributing factors)

Genetic inheritance and physical or chemical changes in the developing brain

ADHD

A disorder involving a repetitive pattern of inattention or hyperactive-impulsive behaviour that affects development and everyday functioning

ADHD (key characteristics)

Impulsivity: Acting on impulse with a plan, not considering the consequences of their actions, unable to control the urge to blurt out things or wait their turn

Hyperactivity: Excessive motor skills, difficulties remaining still, extremely restless

Inattentiveness: Difficulty maintaining their attention on tasks that do not have high levels of stimulation or a rewarding system, fail to pay close attention to details, make careless mistakes, appear to not be listening when spoken to

ADHD (risks + contributing factors)

Genetic and environmental factors, low birth weight, premature birth

Learning Disability

Any disorder that affects learning, resulting in an individual learning with greater difficulty

Dyslexia

A learning disability affecting an individuals ability to accurately and fluently read, spell, and write words.

Dyslexia (key characteristics)

Poor inconsistent spelling, lack of accuracy and fluency when attempting to read, difficulty recognising sight words (the it and)

Dyspraxia

A condition that affects physical coordination. It can be developmental or acquired

Dyspraxia (key characteristics)

Tying shoelaces, handwriting, doing up buttons on clothes