the social construction of crime

• Rather than simply taking the definition of crime for granted, labelling theorists are interested in what?

• They argue that no act is i____ criminal or deviant in itself, in all situations and at all times.

• Instead, it only comes to be so when others l___ it as such. In other words, it is not the nature of the act that makes it deviant, but what?

• Rather than simply taking the definition of crime for granted, labelling theorists are interested in how and why certain acts come to be defined or labelled as criminal in the first place.

• They argue that no act is inherently criminal or deviant in itself, in all situations and at all times.

• Instead, it only comes to be so when others label it as such. In other words, it is not the nature of the act that makes it deviant, but the nature of society's reaction to the act.

Howard Becker and Labelling

• In this view, therefore, d_____ is in the e____ of the b_____. As H___ B___ (1963) puts it:

  'Social groups create deviance by c___ the r___ whose infraction [breaking) constitutes d___, and by applying those r___ to p______ people and l_____ them as o___.'

Howard Becker and Labelling

• In this view, therefore, deviance is in the eye of the beholder. As Howard Becker (1963) puts it:

  'Social groups create deviance by creating the rules whose infraction [breaking) constitutes deviance, and by applying those rules to particular people and labelling them as outsiders.'

Howard Becker and Labelling

• For Becker, what is a deviant?

• This leads labelling theorists to look at what?

• They are particularly interested in the role of what Becker calls moral entrepreneurs- what is this?

However, Becker argues that this new law invariably has two effects:

1. The c____ of a n g____ of 'o____' - o___ or d____ who break the new rule.

2. The creation or expansion of a what? for what purpose?

Howard Becker and Labelling

• For Becker, therefore, a deviant is simply someone to whom the label has been successfully applied, and deviant behaviour is simply behaviour that people so label.

• This leads labelling theorists to look at how and why rules and laws get made.

• They are particularly interested in the role of what Becker calls moral entrepreneurs- These are people who lead a moral campaign to change the law.

However, Becker argues that this new law invariably has two effects:

1. The creation of a new group of 'outsiders' - outlaws or deviants who break the new rule.

2. The creation or expansion of a social control agency (such as the police, courts, probation officers etc) to enforce the rule and impose labels on offenders.

Howard Becker and Labelling

• For example, P____ (1969) argues that the idea of 'j____ d____' was originally created as a result of a c___ by u___-c___ V____ m____ entrepreneurs, aimed at protecting y____ people at risk.

• This established 'j_____' as a s__ c____ of offender with their own courts, and it enabled the state to do what

Howard Becker and Labelling

• For example, Platt (1969) argues that the idea of 'juvenile delinquency' was originally created as a result of a campaign by upper-class Victorian moral entrepreneurs, aimed at protecting young people at risk.

• This established 'juveniles' as a separate category of offender with their own courts, and it enabled the state to extend its powers beyond criminal offences involving the young, into so-called 'status offences' (where their behaviour is only an offence because of their age status) such as truancy and sexual activity.

Howard Becker and Labelling

Real- life example of Platt (1969) idea of 'juvenile delinquency' :

Two 10-year-olds, J___ V____ and R____ T____, murdered two-year-old J___ B___.

There was intense national debate about what 3 things?

Howard Becker and Labelling

Real- life example of Platt (1969) idea of 'juvenile delinquency' :

Two 10-year-olds, Jon Venables and Robert Thompson, murdered two-year-old James Bulger.

There was intense national debate about:

• whether boys so young could fully understand their actions

• whether they should be tried as adults due to the severity of the crime

• how the media portrayed them as “evil,” shaping public pressure

Howard Becker and Labelling

• Becker notes that social control agencies themselves may also campaign for a c____ in the law to i__ their own power.

• For example, the U____ F______ B____ of N____ successfully campaigned for the passing of the M____ T____ A____ in 19____ to outlaw m____ use.

• Supposedly, this was on the grounds of what?, but Becker argues it was really to extend the B____ s____ of i____.

• Thus it is not the inherent harmfulness of a particular behaviour that leads to new laws being created, but what?

• This links to labelling and crime because it shows that what counts as “criminal” is not naturally harmful behaviour, but behaviour that p____ g___ choose to label as deviant in order to expand their control.

Howard Becker and Labelling

• Becker notes that social control agencies themselves may also campaign for a change in the law to increase their own power.

• For example, the US Federal Bureau of Narcotics successfully campaigned for the passing of the Marijuana Tax Act in 1937 to outlaw marijuana use.

• Supposedly, this was on the grounds of its ill effects on young people, but Becker argues it was really to extend the Bureau's sphere of influence.

• Thus it is not the inherent harmfulness of a particular behaviour that leads to new laws being created, but rather the efforts of powerful individuals and groups to redefine that behaviour as unacceptable.

• This links to labelling and crime because it shows that what counts as “criminal” is not naturally harmful behaviour, but behaviour that powerful groups choose to label as deviant in order to expand their control.

Who gets labelled?

Not everyone who commits an offence is punished for it. Whether a person is arrested, charged and convicted depends on factors such as what 3?

Who gets labelled?

Not everyone who commits an offence is punished for it. Whether a person is arrested, charged and convicted depends on factors such as:

1. Their interactions with agencies of social control.

2. Their appearance, background and personal biography.

3. The situation and circumstances of the offence.

Who gets labelled?

• This leads labelling theorists to look at what?

• Their studies show that a___ of s___ c___ are more likely to label certain groups of people as d___ or c___.

• For example, P____ and B___ (1964) found that police decisions to arrest a youth were mainly based on what? from which they made judgments about the y___ c____.

• Officers' decisions were also influenced by what other factors ?

• For example, those stopped l____ at n___ in high crime areas ran a greater risk of a___.

• Similarly, a study of anti-social behaviour orders found they were disproportionately used against e____ m____

Who gets labelled?

• This leads labelling theorists to look at how the laws are applied and enforced.

• Their studies show that agencies of social control are more likely to label certain groups of people as deviant or criminal.

• For example, Piliavin and Briar (1964) found that police decisions to arrest a youth were mainly based on physical cues (such as manner and dress), from which they made judgments about the youth's character.

• Officers' decisions were also influenced by the suspect's gender, class and ethnicity, as well as by time and place

• For example, those stopped late at night in high crime areas ran a greater risk of arrest.

• Similarly, a study of anti-social behaviour orders found they were disproportionately used against ethnic minorities.

Cicourel: the negotiation of justice

• Officers decisions to arrest are influenced by what?

• For example, C_____ (1968) found that officers typifications - what does this mean ? - led them to concentrate on certain "t____'.

• This resulted in law enforcement showing a c___ b__, in that working-class areas and people fitted the police t_____ most closely.

• In turn, this led police doing what? more intensively, resulting in more a____ and c____ their s___.

Cicourel: the negotiation of justice

• Officers decisions to arrest are influenced by their stereotypes about offenders

• For example, Cicourel (1968) found that officers typifications - their commonsense theories or stereotypes of what the typical delinquent is like - led them to concentrate on certain "types'.

• This resulted in law enforcement showing a class bias, in that working-class areas and people fitted the police typifications most closely.

• In turn, this led police to patrol working-class areas more intensively, resulting in more arrests and confirming their stereotypes.

Cicourel: the negotiation of justice

• Cicourel also found that other agents of s____ c____ within the criminal justice system reinforced this b____.

• For example, probation officers held the commonsense theory that juvenile delinquency was caused by what?

• They tended to see youths from such backgrounds as l____ to o___ in f___ and were less likely to s____ n___-c__ sentences for them.

Cicourel: the negotiation of justice

• Cicourel also found that other agents of social control within the criminal justice system reinforced this bias.

• For example, probation officers held the commonsense theory that juvenile delinquency was caused by broken homes, poverty and lax parenting.

• They tended to see youths from such backgrounds as likely to offend in future and were less likely to support non-custodial sentences for them.

Cicourel: the negotiation of justice

• Cicourel's view is justice is not f____ but n____

• E.g. when a middle-class youth was arrested he was less likely to be charged - for what 2 reasons?

• as a result he was more likely to be r_____ and not p_____.

Cicourel: the negotiation of justice

• Cicourel's view is justice is not fixed but negotiable.

• E.g. when a middle-class youth was arrested he was less likely to be charged - partly because his background did not fit the
  "typical delinquent" and partly because his parents were more likely to be able to negotiate successfully on his behalf-

• as a result he was more likely to be released and not prosecuted.

Topic versus resource

• Cicourel's study has implications for the use we make of o____ c___ s___ brecorded by the police.

• He argues that these statistics do not give us a v____ picture of the p____ of crime and cannot be used as a resource - that is, as facts about crime.

• Instead, we should treat them as a t____ for s____ to i____. That is, we must not take crime statistics at f____ v____; instead, we should investigate the p_____ that created them.

• This will shed light on what.

Topic versus resource

• Cicourel's study has implications for the use we make of official crime statistics recorded by the police.

• He argues that these statistics do not give us a valid picture of the patterns of crime and cannot be used as a resource - that is, as facts about crime.

• Instead, we should treat them as a topic for sociologists to investigate. That is, we must not take crime statistics at face value; instead, we should investigate the processes that created them.

• This will shed light on the activities of the control agencies and how they process and label certain types of people as criminal.

The social construction of crime statistics

• Interactionists see the official crime statistics as s___ c____.

• At each stage of the c_____ j____ s____, agents of s___ control (such as p_____ o____ or prosecutors) make decisions about whether or not to proceed to the next stage.

• The outcome depends on what?

• This label is likely to be affected by the t____ or s____ they hold about them.

The social construction of crime statistics

• Interactionists see the official crime statistics as socially constructed.

• At each stage of the criminal justice system, agents of socal control (such as police officers or prosecutors) make decisions about whether or not to proceed to the next stage.

• The outcome depends on the label they attach to individual suspects or defendants in the course of their interactions.

• This label is likely to be affected by the typifications or stereotypes they hold about them.

The social construction of crime statistics

• As a result, the statistics produced by the criminal justice system only tell us about what? rather than what

• The statistics are really just counts of the d____ made by c____ a____ at the different 'decision gates' or stages in the justice system.

The social construction of crime statistics

• As a result, the statistics produced by the criminal justice system only tell us about the activities of the police and prosecutors, rather than about the amount of crime out there in society or who commits it.

• The statistics are really just counts of the decisions made by control agents at the different 'decision gates' or stages in the justice system.

The social construction of crime statistics- The dark figure of crime

what does the ‘dark figure’ refer to and why?

The social construction of crime statistics- The dark figure of crime

The difference between the official statistics and the 'real' rate of crime is sometimes called the dark figure, because we do not know for certain how much crime goes undetected, unreported and unrecorded.

The social construction of crime statistics- alternative statistics

• Some sociologists use v___ s____ (where people are asked what crimes they have been victims of) or s____-r____ studies (where they are asked what crimes they have committed) to gain a more a____ view of the amount of crime.

• These can add to our picture of crime, but they have several limitations.

• For example, people may f___, c____ or e____ when asked if they have committed a crime or been the victim of one.

• In addition, such surveys usually only include a selection of (generally less serious) offences.

The social construction of crime statistics- alternative statistics

• Some sociologists use victim surveys (where people are asked what crimes they have been victims of) or self-report studies (where they are asked what crimes they have committed) to gain a more accurate view of the amount of crime.

• These can add to our picture of crime, but they have several limitations.

• For example, people may forget, conceal or exaggerate when asked if they have committed a crime or been the victim of one.

• In addition, such surveys usually only include a selection of (generally less serious) offences.