Psych U3 AOS2 Dot point 1

Learning theories

Learning

A relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of experience.

Conditioning

The process of learning through making associations between stimuli in the environment and a behavioural response. Two types: Classical and Operant.

Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning

A three-phase learning process that results in the involuntary association between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus, so the neutral stimulus comes to be a conditioned stimulus which consistently produces a conditioned response. 

Phases of classical conditioning

• Before Conditioning - The first stage of classical conditioning, during which the neutral stimulus has no associations and does not produce any significant response.

• During Conditioning - The second stage of classical conditioning, during which the neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus, producing an unconditioned response.

• After Conditioning - The third stage of classical conditioning, during which the neutral stimulus becomes the conditioned stimulus, producing a conditioned response.

Elements of classical conditioning

• Unconditioned Stimulus – Any object or event that consistently elicits (produces) a particular involuntary response from an organism. 

• Unconditioned Response - The involuntary response (reflex) by an organism to an unconditioned stimulus. 

• Neutral Stimulus – The stimulus that does not naturally elicit the unconditioned response.

• Conditioned Stimulus – The stimulus that does not naturally elicit the UCR, but through repeated associations with the UCS, comes to trigger a response similar to the UCR.

• Conditioned Response – The learned response that is produced consistently upon presentation of the conditioned stimulus.

Acquisition

The overall process whereby the organism learns to associate the UCS with the NS so that the NS becomes a CS and elicits the CR.

Factors affecting acquisition

• Sequence of presentation of the NS and UCS. 

  • The NS must be presented before the UCS otherwise the organism will not learn to associate the two, as the UCS is the reinforcement or motivator to learn to anticipate and respond early. 

  • Eg. The dog is motivated to salivate early (CR) at the sound of the bell (CS) because it knows food is coming (UCS.) The baby learns to suck early (CR) at the sight of a bottle or smell of milk (CS) because it knows milk (UCS) is coming.

• Timing 

  • The closer the presentation of the NS and UCS the more optimal the learning, or the shorter the acquisition phase.

  • An interval of 0.5 sec between presentation of the NS and UCS is optimal for most species. Even presenting the NS and leaving it to occur right up to presentation of the UCS can aid in establishing pairing, thus shortening the acquisition phase.

Conditioned emotional response

• An emotional reaction that usually occurs when the autonomic nervous system produces a response to a stimulus that did not previously trigger that response. 

Operant conditioning

A type of learning whereby the consequences of a voluntary action determine the likelihood that it will be performed again in the future. (Behaviours followed by pleasant consequences will be repeated, and behaviours followed by unpleasant consequences will be avoided.)

ABCs of learning

1. Antecedent (Discriminative Stimulus) - The environmental stimulus that precedes the relevant behaviour and indicates the response that is likely to be reinforced. The petrol gauge is almost on empty

2. Behaviour (Response) - Voluntary response that has an effect on the environment. Pull in to your nearest petrol station, or keep driving

3. Consequence (Reinforcing Stimulus) – The environmental event that follows the behaviour. Avoid running out of petrol or running out of petrol.

Operant

Any response (or set of responses) that acts (operates) on the environment to produce some kind of consequence. Eg, posting, googling, watching TV, telling a joke, pulling into a petrol station, purchasing food, going to work, going to school.

Thorndike’s law of effect

Behaviour followed by a pleasant consequence is likely to be strengthened and be more frequent, and behaviour that is followed by an unpleasant consequence is likely to be weakened and become less frequent.

Elements of operant conditioning

• Reinforcement – When a pleasant stimulus is given or an unpleasant stimulus is taken away in order to strengthen or increase the frequency of a response.

• A reinforcer is any stimulus (object or event) that strengthens or increases the preceding behaviour.

Positive reinforcement

Is the addition of a pleasant stimulus that strengthens or increases the frequency of the preceding response.  

Eg. Skinner’s experiments: pressing the lever will be strengthened if the action delivers a food pellet.

Negative reinforcement

Is the removal of an unpleasant stimulus that strengthens or increases the frequency of the preceding response.

Eg. Skinner’s experiments: pressing the lever will be strengthened if the action removes the electric shock…

Punishment

When an unpleasant consequence is given or a pleasant consequence is removed in order to weaken or reduce the frequency of a response.

Punishment (positive punishment)

The addition of an unpleasant stimulus that decreases the frequency or weakens the preceding response. 

Example: 

• Pulling a child’s ear

• Giving a child a smack 

• Giving a child an extra chore to do 

• Yelling or pushing the bully in the playground

• Tightening the chain on your dog leash

Response cost (negative punishment)

The removal of a pleasant stimulus that decreases the frequency or weakens the preceding response. 

• It is referred to as response cost because there is a cost for that undesired response… this is the removal of a valued item.  

Example: 

• Taking away freedom (the get along shirt) 

• Being placed in the naughty chair (taking away the opportunity for social interaction) 

• Taking away food 

• Taking away points

• Taking away your phone

Key processes in operant conditioning

Acquisition – The overall process whereby the organism learns to associate the antecedent stimulus, behaviour and its consequences.

Continuous reinforcement – Offered every single time the operant behaviour is performed…. A good strategy when the organism is first acquiring or learning the target operant behaviour.

Partial reinforcement – Offered only on some occasions when the targeted operant behaviour is performed. A good strategy to maintain the operant behaviour after it has been acquired.

Parts of partial reinforcement

• Appropriateness of the consequence. If increasing the frequency of the response is your aim, then it must provide pleasant consequences and therefore be age-appropriate. If decreasing the frequency of the behaviour is your aim, then it must provide unpleasant consequences:

  • Punishment does not promote what the organism should do…. It only guides what not to do. Therefore, positive reinforcers are more effective at guiding behaviour.

  • In teaching, parenting and managing, catching a child/employee doing the right thing rather than focusing on punishing the wrong thing, promotes positive self-esteem and a positive working environment. 

  • Negative punishment is much better than positive punishment in maintaining the ongoing relationship because it keeps the focus on the learner’s actions as opposed to the educator’s actions.

  • Negative punishment is more effective because some children find positive punishment pleasant; it puts the spotlight on them, they get attention, so they keep being naughty! Removing the child to a ‘time-out’, however, takes the spotlight away.

  • Physical punishment should be a last resort; some people would argue that it is not an option. It creates fear of the punisher and leads to a relationship of ongoing distrust.

• The difficulty of the behaviour is also a consideration. Dropping is quite a complex behaviour for a dog, so you might change your approach and reinforce anything that successfully approximates the targeted operant response… thereby shaping the behaviour slowly over time to the desired behaviour.

Applications of operant conditioning

Shaping – a procedure in which a reinforcer is given for any response that successively approximates and ultimately leads to the final desired response or target behaviour. Also known as the method of successive approximations.

Role of the learner - Passive

• The learner does not have to do anything for the Unconditioned Stimulus (motivation) to be presented…

• Pavlov rings the bell, then gives the dog the food before the response of salivation, all the dog is doing is anticipating the presentation of the food and salivating a little bit early because it made the association that the bell rings before the food comes. 

• The learner has no control over the learning process because it involves an automatic response. 

Role of the learner - Active

• The learner has to actively operate on their environment to get the consequence (reinforcement or punishment)

• Skinner’s rat had to operate in its Skinner Box environment to figure out how to get food. 

• In each instance, the learner has complete control over the learning process because these behaviours are voluntary.

The nature of the response - Reflexive

• Involuntary response controlled by the autonomic nervous system. 

• It is often unconscious and not deliberate. 

The nature of the response - Voluntary

• An active response that involves the central nervous system (the brain)

• It is often conscious, intentional and goal-oriented.

Timing of the stimulus and response - Stimulus first

The motivating stimulus presents first, followed by the response second.

• Pavlov’s dog sees the motivating stimulus, ‘food’ and responds with salivation. 

Timing of the stimulus and response - Stimulus second

The response occurs first, the motivating stimulus presents second.

• Skinner’s rat pushes the lever to actively seek out the motivating stimulus, which is the food pellet.