cognition exam 2 - textbook + lecture

chapters 5, 6,

memory

mental processes encoding information and retaining and retrieving the memory

memory is…

“gateway” to cognition

“workspace” - depending how you are processing and encoding information

William James - theory of memory

functionalism - two systems

primary memory = short term (last a few minutes) and hold information in a conscious state

secondary memory = longer term (unlimited duration) brought to consciousness if desired

visual sensory memory

aka iconic memory

brief persistence of the image

lasts less than a second, <1

retention

auditory sensory memory

aka echoic memory

brief sensory memory for auditory stimulus

lasts for 2-3 seconds

retention

George Sperling Experiment

how much information people can take in from briefly presented stimuli

flashed letters on the screen for 50 milliseconds

participants had to do a whole report = report all of the stimuli they saw in a brief presentation.

able to report 4.5/12 on average

partial report method

Procedure used in Sperling’s experiment on the properties of the visual icon, in which participants were instructed to report only some of the stimuli in a briefly presented display.

A cue tone immediately after the display was extinguished indicated which part of the display to report; low, medium, and high - corresponding to a row in a grid formation

on average able to report 3.3/4

delayed partial report method

participants were instructed to report only some of the stimuli in a briefly presented display.

A cue tone that was delayed for one second after the display was extinguished indicated which part of the display to report.

able to report only slightly over 1 letter out of 4

decay

Process by which information is lost from memory due to the passage of time.

From Sperling’s delayed partial report method

The Modal Model of Memory

proposed by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin

describes memory as a mechanism that involves processing information through a series of stages, including short-term memory and long-term memory.

(It is called the modal model because it contained features of many models that were being proposed in the 1960s)

short term memory

aka working memory

holds five to seven items for about 15 to 20 seconds

described as a bottleneck

recall

Subjects are asked to report stimuli they have previously seen or heard

digit span

the number of digits a person can remember. Digit span is used as a measure of the capacity of short-term memory

Miller

change detection

A memory strategy that puts random items into a meaningful order within a story that can then be more easily remembered

Luck and Vogel

depended on the complexitiy of the stimuli

Miller

suggested and estimated the capacity of the STM is 7 ± 2 items

Chunking

chunking

Miller - grouping of information

retaining the unit - helps you remember more information

Combining small units into larger ones, such as when individual words are combined into a meaningful sentence. Chunking can be used to increase the capacity of memory.

• LOL, ATM, MAC,FYI

story mnemonic

A memory strategy that puts random items into a meaningful order within a story that can then be more easily remembered.

Cowan

More recent measures of STM capacity have set the limit at about four items

“working memory”

more complex mental processes involved than just retaining sensory information

mental math, reasoning, learning, overall processing information

Baddeley and Hitch’s model of working memory

Baddeley and Hitch’s model of working memory

**there is a simplified early version with only central executive, phonological loop, and visuospatial sketchpad

phonological loop

The part of working memory that holds and processes verbal and auditory information

speech and sound - inner voice

articulatory loop= active rehearsal

articulatory rehearsal process

Rehearsal process involved in working memory that keeps items in the phonological store from decaying.

articulatory suppression effect

inhibit subvocal rehearsal when you are speaking something else

apple tree vs rehearsing the list

interference with operation of the phonological loop that occurs when a person repeats an irrelevant word such as “the” while carrying out a task that requires the phonological loop.

reduces memory because it interferes with rehearsal

phonological similarity effect

harder to remember words that sound similar than words that sound difference

• key, pea, flea, tea

• vs cat, pull, near, tow

word length effect

harder to remember longer words than shorter words

• cat, glass, red, bag, shoe

• vs kettle, paperclip, experiment, website, printer

visuospatial sketchpad

maintain and manipulate visual and spatial information

information coded as visual imagery = an image is experienced in the absence of a visual stimulus.

mental rotation,

central executive

The part of working memory that coordinates the activity of the phonological loop and the visuospatial sketch pad.

The “traffic cop” of the working memory system - the CEO of WM

planning actions, retrievals, decision processes, integrating information, attentional allocation

episoder buffer

A component added to Baddeley’s original working memory model that serves as a “backup” store that communicates with both long-term memory and the components of working memory.

It holds information longer and has greater capacity than the phonological loop or visuospatial sketch pad

information is integrated to form new episodic memories

control processes

In Atkinson and Shiffrin’s modal model of memory,

active processes that can be controlled by the person and that may differ from one task to another.

Ex. Rehearsal

prefrontal damage

phineas gage - personality change

low impulse control, poor ability to plan, and poor social skills.

thing that babies have - object awareness? out of sight out of mind- developed in the prefontal lobe

activity-silent working memory

Stokes?

Short-term changes in neural network connectivity that has been hypothesized as a mechanism for holding information in working memory.

reading span

Measure used by Daneman and Carpenter to determine individual differences in working memory. It is the number of 13- to 16-word sentences that a person can read and then correctly remember the last words of all of the sentences.

reading span test - used by Daneman and Carpenter to measure reading span

long term memory - ch 6

can hold a large amount of information for years, with some lasting as long as you live

any amount of time longer than 30 seconds

acts as an archive

long duration, large capacity

Sternberg memory task

encoding- you will get a list of letters one at the time

recognition test = a probe letter will appear at the end, you will say YES/NO if the letter was on the list

3 possible explanations - parallel search, serial self-terminating search, serial exhaustive search

parallel search

search for all the letters happen at the same time would derive yes of no given if there’s an answer or not

even if the list is longer it would take the same amount of time equally fast or slow

serial self-terminating search

happening in order and them self terminates, given lit and it doesn’t include the probe item, you are searching through and scanning the item one by one

how long it takes you to search first and second will be shorter depending on where the matching item is

the item is longer… more searching to do

serial exhaustive search

first, I don’t have a probe - look serially

given five items and it includes the probe, you are still searching all of them (exhaustive)

even though there is a match, search until the end of the list

this is the correct way we do it

serial position curve

Murdoch

In a memory experiment in which participants are asked to recall a list of words, a plot of the percentage of participants remembering each word against the position of that word in the list.

good memory for the beginning and the end - forgets the middle

effect is present even if the list is longer

primacy effect

enhanced memory for words presented at the beginning of the list.

possible explanation = time to rehearse the words

Dewey Rundus - remember the list, testing if the better memory for the first half of the list is from rehearsal, people really rehearse these earlier items more than those later in the list

recency effect

enhanced memory for items appearing at the end of the list

possible explanations - the information is staying the echoic or iconic STM (?) - the phonological loop

Glazner - after encoding the list there was a distractor task, start recalling with some time-delay OR count backwards from 30 (apple tree)

disrupting the rehearsals of the STM - interfering with performance - after longer delay, poor recall, leads to STM decay (over time)

decay

forgetting occurs due to the passage of time (fading)

interference

forgetting occurs due to other interfering materials

backwards counting task

coding

The form in which stimuli are represented in the mind.

For example, information can be represented in visual, semantic, and phonological forms

mental approach to coding

The Wickens Experiment

On each trial, participants were presented with words related to either

(a) fruits (the “fruits group”) or

(b) professions (the “professions group”).

Participants in each group listened to three words (for example, banana, peach, apple for the fruits group), counted backward for 15 seconds, and then attempted to recall the three words. They did this for a total of four trials, with different words presented on each trial. Because participants recalled the words so soon after hearing them, they were using their STM

idea was to create proactive interference

proactive interference

interference in memory caused by earlier events

driven- forward looking

old information/memory moves forward in time - interfering with remembering new info

the new group of information causes a release of PI

release from proactive interference

A situation in which conditions occur that eliminate or reduce the decrease in performance caused by proactive interference

retroactive interference

interference caused by later events (recent events)

backward looking - interferes with the retrieval of older info/memory

old passwords —— new password

interference and serial position effects

primacy effect

• reduced proactive interference

• nothing came before the first time

recency effect

• reduced retroactive interference

• nothing came after the last items

middle

• suffers from both retroactive and proactive interference

types of LTM - Patient KC

impaired episodic memory

unimpaired semantic memory

Tulving assessment - KC cannot remember in the sense of brining back to conscious awareness, a single thing that he as ever done in his life or experienced in his past

hippocampus

A subcortical structure that is important for forming long-term memories, and that also plays a role in remote episodic memories and in short-term storage of novel information.

declarative memory

explicit memory

episodic memory + semantic memory

nondeclarative memory

implicit memory

knowledge that influences thought and behavior without consciousness

procedural memory

skills and habits

retrospective memory

this is what most memory is - looking backward at events

prospective memory

using memory to remember to do something in the future

utilize the LTM

“i need to remember to move my dentist appt”

“A type of memory used to remember and perform planned actions at some point in the future.” - textbook

Patient HM

full removal of his hippocampus

unable to create new memories- still had his STM

unimpaired implicit memory - nondeclarative ( mirror tracing task - could not remember previous attempts but got better)

anterograde amnesia

A type of memory loss in which new memories are unable to be created or stored.

mental time travel

According to Tulving,

the defining property of the experience of episodic memory, in which a person travels back in time in his or her mind to reexperience events that happened in the past

priming

exposure to one stimulus influences how one responds to another subsequent stimulus -unconscious

buy from a familiar brand than an unknown onere

repetition priming

faster processing of content that was presented before

propaganda effect

People are more likely to rate statements they have read or heard before as being true, just because of prior exposure to the statements

implicit memory

classical conditioning

A procedure in which pairing a neutral stimulus with a stimulus that elicits a response causes the neutral stimulus to elicit that response

operant conditioning

A learning process by which behaviors are made more likely to recur by the inclusion of reinforcers or less likely to recur by the inclusions of punishments. Operant conditioning can be used to shape behavior toward a more desired outcome

Word Stem competition task

asked to read a set of words last week

repeated again - more likely to fill in a blank with the repeated word

remember/know procedure

A procedure in which subjects are presented with a stimulus they have encountered before and are asked to indicate remember, if they remember the circumstances under which they initially encountered it, or know, if the stimulus seems familiar but they don’t remember experiencing it earlier.

familiarity = the stimulus seems familiar but the details of how you remember are blurry

semanticization of remote memories

Loss of episodic details for memories of long-ago events

mindfulness

Paying attention on purpose, in the present moment, and nonjudgmentally, to the unfolding of experience moment to moment.

expert induced amnesia

Amnesia that occurs because well-learned procedural memories do not require attention

ch 7 - LTM

autobiographical memory

Memory for specific events from a person’s life, which can include both episodic and semantic components

personal semantic memories

Semantic components of autobiographical memories