Key terms from sociology textbook glossary

absolute mobility

total number of positional changes

academic sociology

the way academic institutions describe and explain the social world

achievement

personal effort, skills, talent and performance

adjacency matrix

a matrix representing who has a relation to whom in a network

administrative research

research in which the researcher uses data on human populations that are provided by official institutions such as governments, schools, or hospitals

affiliation network

social category with which people can affiliate: synonym = group

aggregation mechanism

proposition which relates the individual level to collective outcomes

ancestry

subjective identification with certain ethnic origins

application question

type of scientific question targeted towards applying scientific knowledge

ascription

characteristics set at birth, such as family origin and ethnic origin

audit testing

field experiment method which uses actors to detect discrimination

availability heuristic

cognitive bias that people’s judgement of the probability of events, or the frequency of a kind of thing, depends on the ease with which people can think of certain information

background knowledge

the theories and observations that are known before the study commences

between-country stratification

unequal distribution of valuable goods between countries

biased sample

sample for which observations in the study cannot be generalised to the population

bidirectional relation

relation between two variables X and Y such that changes in X result in changes in Y, and changes in Y result in changes in X. Synonym: feedback relation

big data research

research in which the researcher uses (unstructured) data from the internet, digital communication and digital traces.

Black Box explanations

type of explanation in which Y is explained by X, but the theoretical mechanism linking X to Y is missing

Brokerage

network position which connects (otherwise disconnected) communities

Bystander effect

Phenomenon in which people are less likely to help other people in a critical situation when passive bystanders are present

case study research

research that is an in-depth examination of an extensive amount of information about very few units or cases

causality

idea that an independent variable (X) has an effect on a dependent variable (Y)

civil society

society consisting of a cohesive web of voluntary associations

cohort effect

societal changes are due to generational replacement

collective effervescence

shared religious activities

collectivism

collectivistic values, such as emphasis on group loyalty and authority

common sense

everyday thinking, intuitions, beliefs and perceptions

community

a cluster of nodes that are more connected internally than externally, either directly and/or indirectly

community-bonding ties

ties between people within the same community

community-bridging ties

ties between people of different communities

comparative-case questions

question which includes some comparison of cases, such as multiple social contexts, multiple moments in time and/or multiple populations

compensatory mechanism

strategic behaviour of high-status parents to maintain their high status in times of modernisation

complete mediation

the impact of X on Y is completely accounted for by a third variable, Z, such that there is no other wat that X affects Y than via Z

complex aggregation

idea that collective outcomes result from complex interplay between individuals and their social context

complex concept

theoretical concept that consists of different dimensions

complex contagion

diffusion of opinions that need more sources

concept

hypothetical abstraction that contains certain categories. Synonym: theoretical variable

conceptualisation

the differentiation of various dimensions of theoretical variables, relevant for complex concepts

conceptual model

type of theory tool in which the causal relationship between concepts are visualised

condition

assumption about the specific setting which relates propositions to observations and hypotheses

consolidation

degree of overlap, correlation between groups with respect to a certain dimension

cooperation problem

certain condition in which rational self-interest behaviour results in collective problems, synonym: social dilemma

coordination problem

certain condition in which people want to do the same thing, but are uncertain about the behaviour of each other

correspondence testing

field experimental method which uses resumes to detect discrimination

credibility-enhancing displays

behaviours which signal than people are genuine believers

cultural inertia

time-lag between changing social conditions and adapting new norms and opinions

cultural integration

degree of similarity between members of ethnic minority and majority groups with respect to cultural opinions, norms and corresponding practices

cultural maladaptation

norms and opinions which do not fit their social environment well

culture

sociological theme on opinions, norms and corresponding behaviour

culture of honor

culture which strongly endorses/values reputation and the right to self-defense in case one’s honor is threatened

cumulative advantage

positive feedback process in which prior success increases likelihood of successive success, synonym: Matthew Effect

cumulative discrimination

discrimination that occurs in multiple transitions in the life course

cumulative science

the practice that theories and observations of earlier studies are incorporated in the work of successive studies

decree

top-down change in descriptive norm

deductive nomological explanation

form of explanation of phenomena using proposition(s) and conditions

deeper explanation

type of explanation in which one proposition is explained by another, more general, proposition

demographic transition

transition within a population from high fertility and high mortality to low fertility and low mortality

dependent variable

variable which is affected by another variable (independent variable)

descriptive norm

statement specifying what a person is expected to do

descriptive question

type of scientific question targeted towards describing phenomena

descriptive research

research whose purpose is to come up with accurate descriptions of social phenomena

diffusion

the transmission and spread of something

dimensions

aspects of theory variables

direct causal relationship

a relationship between two variables X and Y, such that changes in X have a direct effect on changes in Y

dominant strategy

strategy that is favorable to choose irrespective of what other people do

dyads

each possible relationship between ego and alter

ecological explanation

type of explanation in which both the dependent and independent variables are at the collective level (meso or macro)

economic integration

degree of similarity between ethnic minority and ethnic majority groups in realising valued goals

edges

the ties in a network

emancipative values

individualistic values, such as emphasis on autonomy and personal choice, synonym: individualism

empirical success

the degree of empirical confirmation of a theory

empirical variable

variable used in empirical research, synonyms: measure, indicator, proxy

endogamy

marriage between two individuals who belong to the same group

ethnic diveristy

ethnic heterogeneity of a population

ethnic group

people affiliated to the same origin beyond family roots

exogamy

marriage between two individuals who belong to different groups, synonym: intermarriage, mixed marriage

experimental research

research in which the researcher manipulates conditions for some research participants but not other and then compares group responses to see whether doing so made a difference

explanatory research

research whose purpose is to rigorously test hypotheses

exploratory research

research whose purpose is to discover new phenomena and to construct new theories

external sanction

sanctions imposed by third parties i.e, other people of the group in which the social norm applies

external validity

the validity of inferences about whether the results of the study are generalisable beyond a specific study

false negative

a research finding which suggests the hypothesis is false, whereas in reality the hypothesis is true

false positive

a research finding which suggests the hypothesis is true, whereas in reality the hypothesis is false

false theoretical question

theoretical question which aims to explain something that does not exist

flynn effect

gradual increase in skills and abilities of populations in developed countries between 1930 and 1995

foci

social settings in which people participate and that create the pool of people we meet

forbidden triad

a triad in which ego A has strong ties to alters B and C, but in which no tie exists between B and C

foreign-born population

people born abroad, synonym: first generation

formal model

type of theory tool in which theories are expressed with formulised language

formal sanction

punishment for behaviour diverging from legal norm

free ride

type of behaviour in which one prefers personal gains above the interest of the group

gender essentialist belief

belief that there are traits that are distinctively male and female

gini coefficient

measure of stratification in society which runs from 0 (minimum) to 100 (maximum)

graph

a visual representation of relations between actors in a network

group

social category with which people can affiliate, synonym: affiliation network

group-bonding tie

tie between two individuals who belong to the same group

group-bridging tie

tie between two individuals who belong to a different group

habitus

behavioural dispositions based on cognition, moral norms, values and cultural scripts

horizontal diffusion

knowledge transmitted within generations

hub

highly connected central nodes in a network