Unit 6 Study Guide: Cardiovascular, Hematology, Respiratory, and Vital Signs

Health Science Theory!

What are the primary organs and core function of the cardiovascular system?

The primary organs are the heart, blood vessels, and blood. Its core function is to circulate blood throughout the body to deliver essential oxygen and nutrients to cells while removing metabolic waste products for elimination.

What are the three metabolic waste elimination pathways described in the cardiovascular system?

At the lungs, $CO_2$ is released and exhaled; at the liver, blood is filtered and bile is produced (which is stored to break down fats in the small intestine); at the kidneys, blood is filtered to release liquid waste as urine.

What are the structural and functional characteristics of arteries?

Arteries are thick-walled, elastic vessels that carry blood away from the heart under high pressure. The pulmonary artery carries blood to the lungs, the aorta carries blood to the body, and coronary arteries supply the myocardium.

What is the structure and primary function of capillaries?

Capillaries are microscopic, thin-walled vessels connecting arterioles and venules that serve as the primary site of diffusion for oxygen, nutrients, $CO_2$, and wastes.

What are the structural characteristics and function of veins?

Veins are thin-walled, low-pressure vessels containing valves to prevent backflow as they carry blood toward the heart.

What is the difference between systemic circulation and pulmonary circulation?

Systemic circulation carries oxygenated blood from the heart to the body and returns deoxygenated blood back to the heart. Pulmonary circulation carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs for gas exchange and returns oxygenated blood to the heart.

What are the three layers of the heart and their functions?

The endocardium is the inner smooth lining; the myocardium is the thick middle muscular layer that contracts to develop pumping pressure; and the pericardium is the outer fluid-filled sac that reduces friction.

What are the four chambers of the heart and what structure divides them?

The four chambers are the Right Atrium, Right Ventricle, Left Atrium, and Left Ventricle, and they are divided by the septum.

What are the four valves of the heart and their anatomical locations?

The Tricuspid Valve is an AV valve on the right side; the Pulmonary Valve is a semilunar valve leading to the pulmonary artery; the Bicuspid/Mitral Valve is an AV valve on the left side; and the Aortic Valve is a semilunar valve leading to the aorta.

What is the complete 6-step pathway of blood flow through the heart?

$1$) Deoxygenated blood enters the Right Atrium via the Vena Cavae

$2$) Passes through the Tricuspid Valve into the Right Ventricle

$3$) Passes through the Pulmonary Valve and Pulmonary Artery to the lungs

$4$) Oxygenated blood enters the Left Atrium via Pulmonary Veins

$5$) Passes through the Bicuspid Valve into the Left Ventricle

$6$) Passes through the Aortic Valve and Aorta to the body.

What distinguishes systole from diastole in the cardiac cycle?

Systole is the contraction phase representing the highest pressure, whereas diastole is the relaxation/filling phase representing the lowest pressure.

What is the sequence of electrical conduction through the heart?

SA Node (pacemaker) -> AV Node -> AV Bundle (Bundle of His) -> Bundle Branches -> Purkinje Fibers in the ventricular myocardium.

What four factors influence blood pressure?

Elasticity of arteries, vessel diameter, viscosity of blood, and resistance to blood flow.

What is hematopoiesis, where does it occur, and what volume of blood does an adult have?

Hematopoiesis is the production of blood cells occurring in the red bone marrow. An adult has approximately $5\,\text{liters}$ of blood.

What is the composition of plasma and the functions of its three major proteins?

Plasma makes up $55\%$ of blood and is $90\text{--}92\%$ water. It contains Albumin (transports fatty substances), Gamma Globulins (act as antibodies), and Fibrinogen (clotting protein).

What percentage of blood is made up of formed elements, and what are their three types?

Formed elements make up $45\%$ of blood. The three types are Erythrocytes (RBCs), Leukocytes (WBCs), and Thrombocytes (Platelets).

What are the structural features, lifespan, and oxygen-carrying component of erythrocytes?

Erythrocytes are biconcave, have a lifespan of $120\,\text{days}$, and contain iron-rich hemoglobin to carry oxygen.

What are the primary functions of leukocytes and thrombocytes?

Leukocytes (WBCs) fight bacteria and viruses. Thrombocytes (Platelets) are the smallest formed elements and are essential for blood clotting.

What markers and antibodies are present in Type A and Type B blood, and what blood types can they accept?

Type A has A marker, produces anti-B antibodies, and can accept A and O. Type B has B marker, produces anti-A antibodies, and can accept B and O.

Which blood types are designated as the Universal Recipient and Universal Donor, and why?

Type AB+ is the Universal Recipient because Type AB has both A and B markers and produces NO antibodies. Type O- is the Universal Donor because Type O has NO markers and produces anti-A and anti-B antibodies.

How does the Rh factor determine antibodies and compatibility?

Rh-positive blood contains the Rh protein and produces no antibodies. Rh-negative blood lacks the Rh protein, produces anti-Rh antibodies, and can only accept Rh-negative blood.

What is the difference between a thrombus and an embolus?

A thrombus is a blood clot formed at its original site, whereas an embolus is a clot that has broken loose and traveled through the bloodstream.

What is sickle cell anemia and what clinical complications does it cause?

Sickle cell anemia is an inherited RBC disorder causing red blood cells to deform into a sickle shape, leading to premature cell death, fatigue, pain crises, and blocked blood vessels.

What are the differences between ventilation, external respiration, and internal respiration?

Ventilation is the mechanical movement of air into (inhalation) and out of (exhalation) the lungs. External respiration is gas exchange between the alveoli and pulmonary capillaries. Internal respiration is gas exchange at the cellular level between systemic capillaries and body tissues for cell metabolism.

How do the nasal cavity and airway lining filter incoming air?

They are lined with a mucous membrane and cilia to filter, warm, and moisturize incoming air.

What is the epiglottis and what is its primary function?

The epiglottis is a flap-like leaf structure that covers the larynx/trachea during swallowing to prevent food and liquid from entering the airways.

What is the anatomical structure of the trachea?

The trachea (windpipe) is composed of smooth muscle and kept open by C-shaped cartilage rings.

What is the role of alveoli in the respiratory system?

Alveoli are microscopic air sacs surrounded by pulmonary capillaries where gas exchange occurs via diffusion.

How many lobes does each lung have, and what are the two layers of the pleura?

The right lung has $3$ lobes and the left lung has $2$ lobes. The visceral pleura covers the lung surface, while the parietal pleura lines the inner chest wall cavity.

What mechanical steps occur during inhalation?

The diaphragm contracts and moves downward -> thoracic volume increases -> thoracic pressure decreases -> air flows into the lungs.

What mechanical steps occur during exhalation?

The diaphragm relaxes -> thoracic volume decreases -> thoracic pressure increases -> air rushes out.

What chemical factor primarily regulates respiratory rate, and what effect does it have?

Respiratory rate is primarily regulated by carbon dioxide ($CO_2$) levels in the blood; high $CO_2$ triggers rapid breathing.

What are the three sub-regions of the pharynx listed in the airway pathway?

Nasopharynx, Oropharynx, and Laryngopharynx.

Which brain structure regulates body temperature, and what is the average normal adult body temperature?

The Hypothalamus regulates body temperature. The average normal adult temperature is $98.6^\circ\text{F}$ ($37^\circ\text{C}$).

Which measurement routes provide the most accurate core body temperature readings?

Rectal and Temporal artery measurements

What is pulse, what are the three measurement sites?

Pulse is the surge of blood against an artery wall. It is measured at the Radial artery (wrist), Apical (directly over heart with stethoscope), or Carotid artery (neck).

What are bradycardia and tachycardia?

Bradycardia is a slow pulse rate under $60\,\text{bpm}$, whereas tachycardia is a fast pulse rate over $100\,\text{bpm}$.

What is the normal adult respiratory rate, and what clinical protocol must be followed when assessing it?

The normal adult rate is $12\text{--}20\,\text{breaths per minute}$. Clinically, count respirations immediately after taking the pulse without telling the patient to prevent subconscious altering of breathing.

How are dyspnea defined?

Difficult or labored breathing

What is the normal pulse oximetry range?

Normal blood oxygen saturation is $95\text{--}100\%$,

How is hypoxia defined?

A reading below 85%

What are the key steps for manual blood pressure measurement?

1. Wrap cuff $1\,\text{inch}$ above elbow crease

2. Place stethoscope diaphragm over Brachial artery

3. Inflate cuff to $180\,\text{mmHg}$

4. Slowly deflate and record systolic (first sound) and diastolic (disappearance of sound).

How is apnea defined?

Apnea is the absence of breathing

How is tachypnea defined?

Rapid shallow breathing

How is bradypnea defined?

A slow rate under 12 bpm

What’s the normal pulse rate for an infant and an adult?

The normal adult rate is $60\text{--}100\,\text{bpm}$, and the infant rate is $120\text{--}160\,\text{bpm}$.