AP Lang Study Guide

Context (In Key Elements of Rhetoric)

- The situation of a rhetorical work
- Sets the stage for an argument

3 Parts of Rhetorical situation

exigence, audience, and constraints

Purpose (In Key Elements of Rhetoric)

- Aim of the speaker

Bias (In Key Elements of Rhetoric)

- Slant/Skew
- Contributes to context
- Usually political or cultural
- "Because it effects how one uses rhetoric, it contributes to context"

Thesis (In Key Elements of Rhetoric)

- Central claim
- Decisively states position

Aristotle (In Key Elements of Rhetoric)

- Defined rhetoric
- Rhetorician Metaphor

The Rhetorical Triangle

- Subject, Speaker, and Audience
- Appears that ethos, logos, and pathos are represented equally in writing (equilateral triangle)
- rhetoricians say it is best to judge the audience to determine which of the three is most needed in the writing to help persuade, but if you can not determine which would be best to prioritize, find a balance of the three in the writing.
- The rhetorical triangle not only describes the need to balance logos, ethos, and pathos, but it also describes the relationship between subject, speaker, and audience with those three respectively.
- Meaning, subject relates to logos, speaker relates to ethos, and pathos relates to audience.

Subject / Logos

- A very broad definition of logos is that an appeal to logos is when a writer or speaker presents clear or rational ideas.
- The subject is related to this because the subject is the content of the text.
- This means that if you had a well organized and clear thesis in your text then it is an appeal to logos.
- Another reason that subject can relate to logos is that having clear ideas to support your thesis is, again, an appeal to logos.
- Finally, the structure of the entire text, or subject, is an appeal to logos if the structure actually happens to make sense.

Speaker / Ethos

- Ethos is when the author or speaker is showing that they are related to the topic, credible, and that they are trustworthy.
- Ethos is the character of the author.
- The speaker is also related to ethos in the tone and diction the speaker chooses to use while talking to the audience.
- One tool that can help a speaker appeal to ethos is persona. A persona is he character a speaker takes on when they are speaking to the audience

Audience / Pathos

- Pathos is an appeal to emotion, beliefs, values, and the sympathetic imagination.
- Because of this, it can relate to the audience due to the fact that the speaker would be trying to evoke this response in the audience, and different groups of people would have different responses to different things.
- An example of how this relates to audience is when the speaker gives vivid examples or details that engage the readers emotions.
- For a speaker to utilize this connection between audience and pathos correctly, it is important to use examples that the audience can relate to or a situation that the audience cares about.

introduction (exordium)

- usually a brief description that grabs the attention of the audience.
- The introduction also typically contains a strong ethos appeal to establish the speaker or author as an authority figure.

Exordium, meaning beginning of a web in Latin, is a brief description meant to grab the audience's attention as an introduction.
Ethos is often established here.

The Narration (Narratio)

- provides factual information and background material and is therefore the start of the developmental paragraphs or establishes why the topic is relevant and why it needs to be dealt with.
- While it sounds like this section is purely logos, writers will often attempt an appeal to pathos with strong emotional appeals.

The Confirmation (confirmatio)

- is mainly the development of the argument and proof to aid to the point. It is the most detailed section with the strongest appeal to logos.

The Refutation (refutatio)

- addresses counter arguments and often bridges the writer's proof and conclusion.
- The location of this part of the classical model can be tactically placed depending on the audience and writer. - This section appeals to logos particularly.

The Conclusion (peroratio)

- are the paragraph(s) that bring the essay to a satisfying end.
- The author tends to remind the audience of his/her ethos and appeals to pathos.
- The author ties all of the ideas together here and answers the question of what to do next.
- Remember the last words are the ones the audience tend to remember most.

Ethos

• Originally identified by Aristotle, ethos is a persuasive technique in which the speaker or author uses his or her credibility as a motivator for their belief or opinion.

Extrinsic

is the form of ethos appeal that is more common and is the appeal to the authority, qualification, and education that is outright implied or stated in the piece.

Intrinsic

is a form of ethos which makes a person seem credible through the form in which the information is presented. This includes professional terminology, confidence in a speaker's tone, complex titles to works, and otherwise persuading through the presentation technique, going as far as even clothing and fonts.

FIRST PERSON:

THE AUTHOR IS A CHARACTER, TYPICALLY THE MAIN CHARACTER IN THE STORY. WORDS SUCH AS "I" "ME" OR "WE" ARE USED TO DESCRIBE THE ACTIONS OF THE CHARACTERS IN THE STORY.

SECOND PERSON:

LEAST COMMON, TYPICALLY USED IN INSTRUCTION MANUALS OR IN SELF-HELP BOOKS, THIS NARRATION IS DIRECTED AT THE READER. WORDS SUCH AS "YOU" AND "YOURS" ARE USED.

THIRD PERSON:

AN EXTERNAL NARRATOR WHO IS NOT INVOLVED IN THE STORY SPEAKS ABOUT THE ACTIONS IN THE TEXT. WORDS SUCH AS "HE", "SHE" OR "THEY" ARE USED.

Omniscient third:

the author is aware of all of the character's thoughts, actions, motives, and secrets.

Limited third:

The author is only aware to what the characters are aware of, telling the story as the reader finds it out.

Objective third:

Often called the Observer, this is told by an external narrator with his own opinions about the text or play.

unreliable narrator

- Typically in the first person but can be found in third (especially in the objective form)
- is narration from a person who is not mentally stable, not educated on the topic, not aware of certain aspects of the story or has otherwise motivation behind the telling of the story.

Description

• Sensory details are used to make a situation or idea more real and believable to the reader or listener.

Objective Description

• This type of description describes the factual elements of the object, person, or scenario that it is describing, such as in a police report.

Impressionistic Description

• Description which relates to the authors feelings rather than the actual defining elements of an object, person, or scenario.

Pathos:

An appeal to emotions, using figurative language or anecdotes, that engage the audience's emotion.

Why is figurative language important when using pathos?

•because it helps convey emotion.
- Using figurative language helps add imagery to a work or speech.
- Being able to convey a visual appeal, makes the audience more empathetic and easier to persuade.

How to use Pathos

- When using pathos try not to be overly emotional as that can lead to losing credibility as a writer.
- Before you start writing think about which emotions relate most to the topic at hand.
- Use credible examples that you can back up.
- If presenting, stay professional and keep a level tone of voice.

Comparison and contrast:

A common way to analyze information that juxtaposes two things to highlight similarities and differences.

Backstory of Logos?

▪ Logos has also been referenced as the "word" meaning truth.
▪ Used in religious texts defining God
▪ Philosophers such as Aristotle thought highly of the use of logos in writing

Appeal to Logos?

▪ Logos is a very important way to support or refuse a claim
▪ Uses FACTS
▪ Has a clear and straight way to get something across
▪ Argument can either be very strong or very weak

Types of Reasoning: Inductive

▪ Using examples that are specific but can be used to represent the whole category
▪ This type of reasoning is used to create guesses or hypotheses based on what you know
▪ Even if you use true premises the generalization could be false
- Ex. My car is grey. My car is very slow. This would indicate that all grey cars are slow.
▪ This example is not a good way of using inductive reasoning because it can be disputed easily
▪ You cannot always be 100% sure because you have a limited amount of evidence

Types of Reasoning: Deductive

▪ Take a general notion or rule that the reader and writer both understand
▪ Then use a specific claim that would fit inside that bigger category
▪ Both claims need to be true to reach a true conclusion - Ex. All men are mortal. Connor is a man. Connor is mortal.

Inductive vs Deductive Reasoning Patterns

Inductive: Observation, Pattern, Tentative Hypothesis, and Theory
Deductive: Theory, Hypothesis, Observation, Confirmation

Types of Reasoning: Reductive

▪ Give a list of examples or solutions and eliminating them one by one until you reach the answer you wanted
▪ Easy to use in multiple choice questions
▪ Not easy when you must give a limited amount examples and narrow it down
▪ Might not have all the answers listed

Do's and Don'ts of logos

DO
▪ Use irrefutable and evidence based examples, facts, stats, and factual data
▪ Use solid reasoning that are difficult to dispute
DON'T
▪ Use emotion to drive an argument
▪ Use fallacies that will not go unnoticed to a trained audience
▪ Use untrue examples or facts that can be disputed

Process Analysis?

• Process Analysis answers the how question
• It explains the process of how to do something
• An effective way to show relation towards an experience
• followed in Chronological order
• The key to Process Analysis = Clarity -using transitions, major steps, and stages

The Purpose of Process Analysis

▪ The purpose to explain a thought, idea, subject or situation
▪ To prove that you can look at a process analysis and find the concrete steps
▪ An analysis can reveal that a process can be more challenging or easier than one assumed
▪ To help emphasize your process using verbs is a good way to strengthen your analysis

Two Types of Process Analysis

❖ Directive- which is the explanation of how to make or do something. It is shown with step by step instruction ❖ Explanatory-is used to provide the information that will not only help the reader understand a process, but to fuel their curiosity

A Process Analysis consist of...

• An introductory paragraph which tells the reader what they are going to learn how to do with a lead in, transition, and thesis
• The step by step process
• The conclusion paragraph, which should conclude the result of the process

Exemplification and 4 examples

is the use of many examples that help illustrate a larger point.
1. Illustrate - use concrete examples to illustrate idea
2. Explain - give an explanation to illustrate a concept
3. Tell a Story - use a short story to illustrate a point
4. Describe - use examples to help the reader visualize a scene or a thing

When Using Exemplification...

▪ Make sure your examples support your thesis.
▪ Use the most convincing examples possible.
▪ Use examples that will capture your intended audience.
▪ Make sure every example used focuses on your main point.

Organizing Exemplification (4)

▪ Chronologically: Consider that your examples could potentially occur in the same day, month or year.
▪ Logically: Look for any connections between examples.
▪ Spatially: Do any of your examples happen in the same place.
▪ For effect: Consider the fact that some examples have a greater effect on the whole picture of the text.

visual rhetoric

- is the use of visual images to communicate meaning.
- The use and application of visual rhetoric includes:
-- The use of images as an argument
-- The arrangement of what is put on a page
-- The use of typography (fonts, spaces, arrangements, etc.)
-- The analysis of the visuals that are presented

Visual Rhetoric serves several purposes in modern day:

- To advertise (products, ideas, etc.)
- To persuade (supporters, investors, etc.)
- To embellish (statistics, stories, etc.)
- To incentivize (issues, current affairs, etc.)

Definition:

- The meaning of a word or phrase
- Definition effects how a work or conversation is perceived
- Using a different definition of a word can change the work entirely
- Determining the definition is often the first part of a debate
- The definition of a word can set the tone of a debate

Definition is used to decide the relevance of a...

- persuasive or descriptive work such as:
-- The meaning of prestigious when describing a business or school
-- The meaning of powerful when describing a prominent person

Definition is used to decide how a topic is...

- debated, for instance:
-- Defining excess before a debate over how much of something is too much
--The meaning of rude when discussing the actions of a person

SPACE CAT?

is an acronym used during rhetorical analysis to give readers a complete understanding of a text so they can get into the mind of an author and the meanings behind their work

Speaker

the narrative voice of the person telling the story

Purpose

the writer's reason to create their piece

Audience

the individual or group of people that the writer is attempting to convey their message to

Context

the background information needed to understand the piece

Exigence

the catalyst that prompted the writer to create their work

Choices

decisions the writer makes to better express their work

Appeals

how the writer attempts to persuade their audience

Tone

the writer's attitude or feelings toward the subject of their work

When Rhetoric Misses the Mark

- Bad advertisement
- Use of the wrong rhetoric
- Matter of opinion

Causes and Effects

- Cause - The event or thing that makes other things happen
- Effect - Refers to what happens
-- Usually used in persuasive writing, it often uses a 'why' in the title
-- Effects can be +, -, or both
- Sometimes, effects can be mistaken for underlying causes
-- Ex: "You sleep so much that is why you are always sad" Sleeping=effect and sad=underlying cause.
- Usually if someone is for the cause, they will show + effects.
- Usually if someone is against the cause, they will show - effects.
- It is also helpful in decision making.
-- When deciding on a decision to make, considering the possible effects is a good way to help you make your decision.