Roman History: From Monarchy to Empire

A comprehensive vocabulary review of key terms, figures, political structures, and historical milestones from early Rome through the Late Republic and the rise of Augustus.

Romulus and Remus

Mythological twin sons of Mars; Romulus killed Remus and founded Rome in 753 BCE.

Aeneas

Trojan hero ancestor linking Rome to Homeric legend and divine descent (Venus).

Historical Founding of Rome

8th-century BCE Latin/Sabine pastoral farming settlements along the Tiber River.

Roman Kingdom

Era of 7 kings; ended in 509 BCE when the tyrant Tarquin the Proud was overthrown.

Patricians vs. Plebeians

The social division between the wealthy aristocratic ruling class and the common citizen majority.

Conflict of the Orders

Plebeian protests/strikes that won them written laws, political equality, and tribunes.

Tribune of the Plebs

Plebeian officials endowed with sacrosanct immunity and the power to veto any magistrate or law.

Patron-Client System

A social arrangement in which wealthy nobles provided financial/legal protection in exchange for citizen votes and loyalty.

Cursus Honorum

The standard career ladder of elected offices: Quaestor → Aedile → Praetor → Consul.

Mixed Constitution

Rome's system balancing elements of Monarchy (Consuls), Aristocracy (Senate), and Democracy (People).

Consuls' Role

Magistrates who commanded the military, enforced laws, and summoned the Senate.

Senate's Role

Governing body that controlled the public money/treasury, handled foreign diplomacy, and investigated treason.

People's Role

Assembly of citizens that elected officials, passed laws, ratified treaties, and voted on capital punishments.

Polybius' Critique

The observation that the Roman constitutional system was not truly equal because the wealthy Senate controlled money, religion, and voting blocks.

Tiberius Gracchus' Goal

The redistribution of illegal public land (ager publicus) to impoverished citizens.

Tiberius Gracchus' Breaking of Norms

Actions that bypassed the Senate, removed a fellow tribune from office, and sought immediate re-election.

Marian Reforms

Military reforms that abolished land requirements to let the poor enlist, providing them with weapons supplied by the state.

Impact of Marian Army

Created client armies loyal to individual generals for pay and land, rather than loyal to Rome.

Sulla's Takeover

The event in 82 BCE where legions were marched on Rome, rivals were defeated, and Sulla named himself indefinite dictator.

Proscriptions

Sulla’s public execution hit-lists used to kill political enemies and seize their land.

Sulla's Rollbacks

Constitutional reversals that stripped the Tribunes of veto power and restored total dominance to the Senate.

Optimates vs. Populares

Political division between Senate-first conservatives and reformist leaders who utilized popular assemblies.

Res Gestae

Augustus' funerary text recording his achievements, public donations, and military wins.

Auctoritas vs. Potestas

The principle under Augustus of claiming equal legal power (potestas) to other magistrates while maintaining superior influence (auctoritas).

Pater Patriae

Title meaning 'Father of His Country' granted to Augustus by consensus to make his rule look legitimate and wanted.

Princeps

Title meaning 'First Citizen' adopted by Augustus to govern quietly and keep the appearance of the Republic intact following Caesar's assassination.