Gender Development: Theories, Influences, and Stereotypes in Psychology

How does puberty influence gender development?

Puberty intensifies the sexual aspects of adolescents' gender attitudes and behavior.

What did Freud believe about gender?

Gender and sexual behavior are largely instinctual and influenced by anatomy.

What did Erikson originally believe about gender?

Like Freud, he emphasized anatomy's influence on gender behavior, although he later modified his views.

What is the evolutionary psychology perspective on gender?

Gender differences developed because males and females faced different reproductive pressures during human evolution.

What is a major criticism of evolutionary explanations of gender?

They rely partly on speculation about prehistory and underestimate environmental influences.

Who developed social role theory?

Alice Eagly.

What is social role theory?

Gender differences arise mainly from contrasting social roles and unequal access to power, status, and resources.

What is the social cognitive theory of gender?

Gender behavior develops through observation, imitation, and rewards or punishments.

How do parents influence gender development?

They model gender behavior and may give sons and daughters different expectations, freedoms, and encouragement.

How do siblings influence gender roles?

Younger siblings may adopt gender-related behaviors and interests modeled by older siblings.

How do peers influence gender development?

Through modeling, approval, disapproval, acceptance, and rejection of gender-related behaviors.

How can schools reinforce gender differences?

Teachers and school environments may reward or discourage certain behaviors differently among boys and girls.

What does research suggest about single-sex versus coeducational schooling?

Evidence about whether single-sex education is better is mixed.

How does media influence gender development?

Media portray gender stereotypes and can influence adolescents' expectations and body image.

What is gender schema theory?

Children and adolescents develop mental frameworks for what their culture considers gender-appropriate behavior.

What is a gender schema?

A cognitive framework that organizes information and expectations about males and females.

What is a key difference between social cognitive and gender schema theories?

Social cognitive theory emphasizes modeling and reinforcement; gender schema theory emphasizes internal mental organization and self-guided behavior.

What are gender stereotypes?

Broad beliefs or generalizations about the characteristics and behaviors of males and females.

What are instrumental traits?

Traits traditionally associated with masculinity, such as assertiveness, independence, and dominance.

What are expressive traits?

Traits traditionally associated with femininity, such as warmth, sensitivity, and nurturing.

Whose gender stereotypes tend to be more rigid according to the slides?

Boys' gender stereotypes tend to be more rigid than girls'.

What is important to remember about average gender differences?

They do not apply to every individual, and there is substantial overlap between groups.

Are there gender differences in overall intellectual ability?

No. The slides report no overall intellectual ability difference between males and females.

Which cognitive ability do boys/men tend to score higher on, on average?

Visuospatial skills, although scores overlap considerably.

Which academic skills do girls/women tend to perform better in?

Reading and writing.

What do the slides say about gender differences in the brain?

Many reported differences are small or inconsistent and are not clearly linked to psychological differences.

Which group is more likely to drop out of school in the United States?

Boys.

What is physical aggression?

Behavior intended to physically harm another person; boys/men show higher average levels across cultures studied.

What is relational aggression?

Harming others through relationships, exclusion, gossip, or social manipulation.

What is rapport talk?

Communication focused on building connections and maintaining relationships; described as more common among girls/women.

What is report talk?

Communication focused on conveying information, storytelling, joking, or lecturing; described as more common among boys/men.

What is prosocial behavior?

Voluntary behavior intended to benefit or help others.

What gender patterns in empathy do the slides describe?

Girls tend to report and demonstrate more empathy and prosocial behavior on average.

What differences in emotional regulation do the slides describe?

Girls/women tend to perform better at identifying emotions; boys ages 13-16 generally show less emotional self-regulation.

What does Janet Shibley Hyde argue about gender differences?

Most psychological gender differences are small and have often been exaggerated.

What does David Buss emphasize about gender differences?

Evolutionary pressures and reproductive challenges as explanations for gender differences.

How does Alice Eagly's explanation differ from David Buss's?

Eagly emphasizes social roles and unequal power; Buss emphasizes evolutionary adaptation.

What does gender in context mean?

Gender-related behavior varies across situations, social environments, and cultures.

What is androgyny?

Having a high degree of both traditionally masculine and feminine characteristics.

Who developed the Bem Sex-Role Inventory?

Sandra Bem.

What does the Bem Sex-Role Inventory measure?

Traditionally masculine and feminine characteristics, allowing classification into masculine, feminine, androgynous, or undifferentiated categories.

What is an androgynous classification?

High masculine traits and high feminine traits.

What is a masculine classification?

High masculine traits and low feminine traits.

What is a feminine classification?

Low masculine traits and high feminine traits.

What is an undifferentiated classification?

Low masculine traits and low feminine traits.

What did Sandra Bem suggest about androgyny?

Androgynous individuals may be more flexible and psychologically healthy than those limited to traditional gender roles.

What is gender role transcendence?

Evaluating individuals based on their personal abilities rather than masculine, feminine, or androgynous classifications.

What is William Pollack's 'boy code'?

Social expectations that boys should act tough, suppress feelings, and avoid showing vulnerability.

What did Joseph Pleck associate with traditional masculinity?

Pressure to prove masculinity through behaviors such as substance use, delinquency, and premarital sexual activity.

What does transgender mean?

Having a gender identity different from the one typically associated with one's sex assigned at birth.

What does cisgender mean?

Having a gender identity that corresponds with one's sex assigned at birth.

What does nonbinary mean?

A gender identity that does not fit exclusively within the categories of male or female.

What does two-spirit refer to?

A term used by some Indigenous North Americans to describe gender-diverse identities.

Can transgender individuals have different sexual orientations?

Yes. Gender identity and sexual orientation are distinct.

What concern do the slides highlight regarding transgender youth?

Discrimination is associated with greater mental health difficulties, while gender affirmation can be protective.

What is meant by a gender mosaic?

The idea that characteristics of the brain do not fit into two entirely distinct male and female categories.

What do the slides say about traditional gender roles in the United States?

Support for traditional gender roles has generally declined over recent decades.

What is the gender intensification hypothesis?

The idea that gender differences increase during early adolescence because of stronger pressures to conform to traditional gender roles.

When is gender intensification proposed to occur?

Early adolescence, especially around the onset of puberty.

Is the gender intensification hypothesis strongly established?

No. The slides describe mixed evidence and recent research questioning its accuracy.

What happens to stereotypical gender behavior as adolescents get older?

Adolescents generally become less stereotypical in their gender behavior.

Who proposed the 'different voice' perspective?

Carol Gilligan.

What did Carol Gilligan argue about adolescent girls?

Girls may begin silencing their own voices and needs because of social pressure to prioritize others and relationships.

What are major criticisms of Gilligan's research?

Overemphasizing gender differences, limited comparisons with boys, and potentially reinforcing stereotypes.

What is meant by early adolescence being a critical juncture for girls?

A period when social expectations and developmental changes may particularly influence girls' psychological development.