Earth Science and Meteorology Review

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering earth science and meteorology lecture notes, including density, graphing relationships, weathering, erosion, deposition, atmospheric layers, fronts, and weather instruments.

Horizontal Sorting

A form of gradual sediment deposition where particles entering a body of water settle out in horizontal layers by size, with boulders, cobbles, and pebbles settling first near the stream mouth, followed farther out by sand, silt, and clay (forming sandstone, siltstone, and shale).

Graded Bedding (Vertical Sorting)

A type of rapid deposition (such as from a flood) in which sediments deposited in water are sorted vertically within a bed, with the largest and densest particles at the bottom and the smallest particles at the top.

Inside of a Meander

The inner curve of a river bend where water moves slower, resulting in shallower water and more deposition.

Outside of a Meander

The outer curve of a river bend where water moves faster, resulting in deeper water and more erosion.

Stream Discharge

The amount of water flowing in a stream, which increases after rainfall or spring snowmelt and causes stream water to move faster.

Young Stage Stream

A stream stage characterized by a steep slope, fast-moving water, downward erosion that deepens the valley into a V-shape, rapids, waterfalls, and a fairly straight path.

Mature Stage Stream

A stream stage characterized by a gentle slope, slower water velocity, sideways erosion that widens the valley, meanders, and oxbow lakes.

Differential Weathering

The principle that rocks weather at different rates based on mineral composition: more resistant (stronger) rock does not weather easily and forms highlands, uplands, and cliffs, while less resistant (weaker) rock weathers easily and forms valleys and lowlands.

Particle Surface Area and Weathering

The relationship stating that smaller particles weather faster than larger ones because smaller particles possess more total surface area exposed to weathering agents.

Oxidation (Rusting)

A chemical weathering reaction in which iron reacts with oxygen to form iron oxide: $Iron + Oxygen \rightarrow Iron\,Oxide\,(Rust)$.

Carbonic Acid

A weak acid formed when rainwater combines with atmospheric carbon dioxide ($H_2O + CO_2 \rightarrow H_2CO_3$), which dissolves limestone bedrock to create caves and sinkholes.

Rock Weathering Appearance

The physical characteristic of sediments indicating exposure to weathering: rocks with little weathering are large and angular, whereas rocks with lots of weathering become small and rounded.

Physical Weathering

The mechanical process of breaking down rock on or near Earth's surface into smaller sediments without altering its chemical composition.

Frost Action (Ice Wedging)

A physical weathering process in which water seeps into rock cracks, freezes, and repeatedly expands, requiring environmental temperatures that fluctuate around $0^\circ\text{C}$.

Hurricanes vs. Tornadoes

A comparative meteorological study topic contrasting large tropical cyclonic storms with localized violently rotating columns of air.

Lightning

An electrical discharge produced when a negative charge at the base of a cloud connects with a leader of positive charge on the ground, reaching temperatures of approximately $50{,}000^\circ\text{F}$ (~Sun's temperature).

Thunder

The sound created by the rapid, explosive expansion of air heated by a lightning bolt.

Lightning Distance Rule

A method to calculate the distance to a thunderstorm: because sound travels at approximately $760\,\text{mph}$ ($0.2\,\text{miles per second}$, or $1\,\text{mile}$ in $5\,\text{seconds}$), count the seconds between lightning and thunder and divide by $5$ ($\text{Distance in miles} = \frac{\text{seconds}}{5}$).

Coriolis Effect

The deflection of moving air caused by Earth's rotation, bending winds to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere.

Cyclone

A low-pressure weather system associated with wet, stormy weather, characterized by winds that blow counter-clockwise and toward the center.

Anticyclone

A high-pressure weather system associated with dry, clear weather, characterized by winds that blow clockwise and away from the center.

Storm Surge

Coastal water pushed onto land by strong storm winds, resulting in severe flooding.

Synoptic Weather Map

A comprehensive summary weather map showing atmospheric conditions over a large area, where weather fronts are placed based on temperature boundaries.

Occluded Front

A weather front formed when a fast-moving cold front overtakes a warm front, forcing the warm air mass to lift completely off the ground.

Front

The boundary between two different air masses where active weather occurs.

Warm Front

A boundary where warm air pushes cold air away; moves slowly, produces light and long-lasting precipitation, brings warmer air behind it, and leads to rising temperatures once it passes.

Cold Front

A boundary where cold air displaces warm air; moves quickly, produces heavy and brief precipitation (such as thunderstorms), brings colder air behind it, and causes temperatures to drop once it passes.

Air Mass

A large body of air characterized by generally uniform humidity and temperature acquired from its source region.

Continental Polar (cP) Air Mass

An air mass that forms over land at high latitudes, characterized by dry, cold air.

Maritime Tropical (mT) Air Mass

An air mass that forms over warm waters at low latitudes, characterized by moist, warm air.

Standard Atmospheric Pressure at Sea Level

Normal air pressure at sea level, equal to $1\,\text{atmosphere}$, $29.92\,\text{inches of mercury}$, $1013.2\,\text{mb}$, or $14.7\,\text{psi}$.

Sling Psychrometer

A weather instrument featuring a dry-bulb and wet-bulb thermometer used to measure dew point and relative humidity.

Cloud Recipe

The three components required for cloud formation: 1. Water vapor, 2. Cooling of air to the dewpoint (condensation), and 3. A surface to condense on (condensation nuclei).

Adiabatic Cooling

The process in the troposphere in which rising air expands under lower pressure and cools down to its dew point, forming a cloud with a flat base at the dew point altitude.

Wind

Air moving from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure caused by differences in air pressure.

Isobars

Lines drawn on a weather map connecting points of equal air pressure; closely spaced isobars represent a steep pressure gradient and produce the fastest winds.

USA Storm Tracks

The general pathway of storms across the United States, typically traveling from southwest (SW) to northeast (NE) due to the prevailing southwest wind belt.

Dewpoint

The temperature to which air must be cooled to become fully saturated with water vapor, allowing condensation to occur.

Relative Humidity

The percentage of saturation of the air; as air cools toward its dewpoint, relative humidity increases until reaching $100\%$ at saturation.

Station Model Pressure Conversion

The method for decoding 3-digit station model pressures by placing either a 9 or 10 in front and adding a decimal point before the last digit, selecting whichever value is closest to $1000\,\text{mb}$.

Troposphere

The lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere extending from the ground to the tropopause, containing essentially all of Earth's weather.

Atmosphere Gases

The primary elemental gases composing Earth's atmosphere, ranked with Nitrogen as #1 and Oxygen as #2.

Water Density Anomaly (Weird Water)

The unique physical property where liquid water reaches its maximum density at $4^\circ\text{C}$; when cooled from $4^\circ\text{C}$ to $0^\circ\text{C}$ (freezing), it expands and becomes less dense, causing solid ice to float on top of lakes.

Temperature Effect on Density

The physical relationship where heating a substance causes it to expand and become less dense, while cooling causes it to contract and become more dense.

Pressure Effect on Density

The physical relationship where increasing pressure compresses an object to make it more dense, while decreasing pressure allows it to expand and become less dense.

Direct (Positive) Relationship

A graphical relationship between two variables where as the independent variable ($x$) increases, the dependent variable ($y$) also increases.

Indirect (Inverse / Negative) Relationship

A graphical relationship between two variables where as the independent variable ($x$) increases, the dependent variable ($y$) decreases.

Cyclic Relationship

A pattern on a graph where as the independent variable ($x$) increases, the dependent variable ($y$) repeats in a predictable, repeating cycle (such as moon phases or seasons).

Pumice

An extrusive igneous rock with a density less than that of liquid water ($< 1.0\,\text{g/cm}^3$), allowing it to float.

Density

A derived measurement defined as mass per unit volume ($\text{Density} = \frac{\text{mass}}{\text{volume}}$), representing how tightly molecules are packed in a substance.

"Same Stuff, Same Density" Principle

The rule that sample size does not affect density; breaking, cutting, or dividing an object changes its mass and volume proportionally, keeping its density constant.

Scientific Notation

A standardized system for writing very large and very small numbers using powers of 10, in which numbers smaller than 1 have negative exponents.

Archimedes' Principle

The scientific principle stating that an object submerged in water displaces a volume of fluid equal to its own volume.

Volume

The amount of space an object occupies, measured in liters or milliliters ($\text{mL}$) for liquids and cubic centimeters ($\text{cm}^3$) for solids.