PSYC 2113 — Exam 4 Study Guide

Homeostasis

The body's process of maintaining stable internal conditions, such as temperature, blood sugar, and water levels.

Negative Feedback Loop

A process where the body detects a change and responds in a way that reverses it to restore balance.

Allostasis

Maintaining stability by anticipating the body's needs and adjusting before an imbalance occurs.

Glucose

Sugar circulating in the blood that cells use for energy.

Glycogen

Stored form of glucose, primarily in the liver and muscles

Insulin

Hormone released by the pancreas that lowers blood glucose by helping cells absorb glucose and promoting glycogen storage

Glucagon

Hormone released by the pancreas that raises blood glucose by signaling the liver to break down glycogen

Lateral Hypothalamus (LH)

Hypothalamic area involved in initiating eating and stimulating hunger.

Ventromedial Hypothalamus (VMH)

Hypothalamic area associated with satiety and signals that help stop eating.

Arcuate Nucleus

Part of the hypothalamus that monitors hunger and fullness signals and helps regulate food intake.

Ghrelin

Hormone released mainly by the stomach that increases hunger and encourages eating

Hormones That Suppress Appetite

Leptin: Released by fat cells; signals the brain that the body has energy stored.

Peptide YY (PYY): Released by the digestive system after eating; reduces appetite.

Cholecystokinin (CCK): Released by the small intestine; promotes fullness and slows digestion.

Organum Vasculosum of the Lamina Terminalis (OVLT)

A brain structure that monitors blood composition, including salt concentration and fluid balance, helping regulate thirst.

Endotherm

Animal that maintains body temperature primarily through internal metabolic heat

Ectotherm

Animal whose body temperature depends largely on external environmental temperatures.

Preoptic Area of the Hypothalamus (POA)

Brain region involved in regulating body temperature by detecting changes and coordinating heating or cooling responses

Pituitary Gland

Endocrine gland controlled by the hypothalamus that releases hormones regulating growth, reproduction, stress, and other bodily functions

Sexual Dimorphism

Physical or biological differences between males and females of the same species

Primary sex characteristic

Reproductive organs directly involved in reproduction, such as ovaries, testes, and reproductive ducts

Secondary sex charcteristic

Physical characteristics that develop during puberty but are not directly involved in reproduction, such as facial hair, breasts, and voice changes

Brain Differences Between Men and Women

Average differences in certain brain structures, connectivity, and activity patterns have been observed between sexes. However, there is substantial overlap, and individual brains cannot be reliably classified by sex alone

Müllerian ducts

Embryonic structures that typically develop into the uterus, fallopian tubes, and upper vagina

Wolffian ducts

Embryonic structures that typically develop into internal male reproductive structures, such as the epididymis, vas deferens, and seminal vesicles

Helen Fisher's Stages of Love: Lust

Sexual desire, associated with testosterone and estrogen.

Helens fishers stages of love: Attraction

Intense romantic interest, associated with dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin.

Helens fishers stages of love: Attachment

Long-term bonding and closeness, associated with oxytocin and vasopressin.

Oxytocin

Hormone and neurotransmitter involved in social bonding, trust, childbirth, and breastfeeding

Vasopressin

Hormone involved in water retention and social behaviors, including pair bonding

Prairie voles

Generally form long-term pair bonds. Oxytocin and vasopressin receptors in certain brain regions contribute to bonding

Montane voles

Generally do not form long-term pair bonds and have different receptor distributions

Vasopressin and Oxytocin's Impact on Prairie and Montane Voles

These differences help explain how hormones and brain receptors influence social attachment

What Causes Masculinization of the Brain?

Exposure to testosterone during critical periods of prenatal development can influence the development of typically masculine brain structures and behaviors. Testosterone can be converted into estradiol in some species, which also contributes to masculinization

Intersex

A term describing individuals born with sex characteristics that do not fit typical definitions of exclusively male or female bodies

Affect

The general experience or expression of emotion, including feelings, moods, and emotional responses

James-Lange Theory of Emotion

A person experiences a physiological response first and interprets that response as an emotion. Example: You see a snake, your heart races, and you interpret that as fear

Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion

Emotional experience and physiological responses occur simultaneously. Example: You see a snake and feel fear while your heart races

Schachter-Singer (Two-Factor) Theory

Emotion results from physiological arousal combined with a cognitive interpretation of the situation. Example: Your heart races, you recognize a threat, and you experience fear

Ventromedial Prefrontal Cortex (vmPFC)

Brain region involved in emotional regulation, decision-making, evaluating risk, and processing emotional information

Amygdala

Brain structure involved in processing emotions, especially fear, threats, and emotional learning

Lateral nucleus (Amygalda nuclei)

Receives sensory information and helps associate stimuli with emotional responses

Basal nucleus (Amygdala nuclei)

Helps process emotional information and connect it to other brain regions

Central nucleus (Amygdala nuclei)

Coordinates emotional responses, including autonomic and behavioral reactions

Medial nucleus

Involved in processing certain social and olfactory information

Periaqueductal Gray (PAG)

Brain region involved in coordinating defensive behaviors and responses to pain

Dorsal PAG

Associated with active defensive responses, such as escape, flight, and fight

Ventral PAG

Associated with passive defensive responses, such as freezing and immobility

Distress

Negative or overwhelming stress that interferes with functioning and can harm well-being

Eustress

Positive or manageable stress that motivates action and improves performance

SAM System (Sympathetic-Adrenal-Medullary System)

Fast stress-response system that activates the sympathetic nervous system and adrenal medulla, releasing epinephrine and norepinephrine.

HPA Axis (Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis)

Slower hormonal stress-response system that releases cortisol to help the body respond to prolonged stress

SAM (Differences between SAM and HPA)

Immediate response; prepares the body for fight-or-flight

HPA(Differences between SAM and HPA)

Longer-lasting response; helps maintain energy and manage ongoing stress

HPA Axis Pathway (1/3)

Hypothalamus releases CRH (corticotropin-releasing hormone).

HPA Axis Pathway (2/3)

Pituitary gland releases ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone).

HPA Axis Pathway (3/3)

Adrenal cortex releases cortisol

Glucocorticoids

Steroid hormones, such as cortisol, that help regulate metabolism, inflammation, and the body's response to stress

Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs)

Potentially traumatic experiences before age 18, including abuse, neglect, and household dysfunction, that can affect long-term physical and mental health

Nonassociative Learning

Learning that occurs through repeated exposure to a single stimulus, without forming an association between two things

Habituation

A decreased response to a repeated or familiar stimulus. Example: Eventually ignoring the sound of a ticking clock

Sensitization

An increased response to a stimulus after exposure to something intense or unpleasant. Example: Becoming more startled by small noises after a frightening experience

Associative Learning

Learning relationships between stimuli or between behaviors and their consequences

Classical Conditioning

Learning that one stimulus predicts another stimulus, causing a previously neutral stimulus to trigger a learned response

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

Naturally produces a response without learning, such as food

Unconditioned Response (UR)

Natural, unlearned response to a US, such as salivating when food is present

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

Stimulus that initially does not produce the specific response being studied, such as a bell before conditioning

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

Previously neutral stimulus that now triggers a learned response after being paired with a US

Conditioned Response (CR)

Learned response to the CS, such as salivating when hearing the bell.

Acquisition

Initial learning phase when an association between the CS and US develops

Extinction

Weakening of a conditioned response when the CS is repeatedly presented without the US

Spontaneous Recovery

Reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of time

Operant Conditioning

Learning in which behaviors are strengthened or weakened through their consequences, such as rewards and punishments

Sensory Memory

Very brief storage of sensory information, such as sights and sounds

Sensory Memory

Very brief storage of sensory information, such as sights and sounds

Short-Term Memory

Temporary storage of a limited amount of information for a short period

Working Memory

System that temporarily holds and actively manipulates information to complete tasks, solve problems, and reason

Long-Term Memory

Relatively permanent storage of information, knowledge, and experiences

Declarative Memory

Memory for facts and events that can be consciously recalled

Episodic Memory

Memory of personal experiences and events. Example: Remembering your first day of college

Semantic Memory

Memory of facts, meanings, and general knowledge. Example: Knowing that Charlotte is in North Carolina

Non-Declarative Memory

Memory expressed through skills, habits, and learned behaviors without conscious recollection. Example: Riding a bicycle

Spatial Memory

Memory for locations, environments, and how to navigate through spaces

Consolidation

Process through which newly acquired memories become more stable and are stored for longer periods

Perforant Pathway

Major pathway that carries information from the entorhinal cortex to the hippocampus, playing an important role in memory formation

Hebb's Rule

The idea that neurons that repeatedly activate together strengthen their connections. Often summarized as "cells that fire together wire together”

Patient H.M. (Henry Molaison)

A patient underwent surgery that removed parts of his medial temporal lobes, including much of the hippocampus, to treat epilepsy. He developed severe anterograde amnesia but could still learn certain motor skills, demonstrating that different types of memory rely on different brain systems

Retrograde Amnesia

Difficulty remembering information or events from before the injury or event

Anterograde Amnesia

Difficulty forming new long-term memories after the injury or event

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

A long-lasting strengthening of communication between neurons after repeated or strong stimulation. It is considered an important mechanism involved in learning and memory

AMPA Receptors

Glutamate receptors that allow sodium ions (Na⁺) to enter the postsynaptic neuron, causing depolarization

NMDA Receptors

Glutamate receptors that allow calcium ions (Ca²⁺) to enter the postsynaptic neuron when the receptor is activated and its magnesium block is removed

Ions Involved in LTP

Sodium (Na⁺): Enters through AMPA receptors and helps depolarize the neuron.

Calcium (Ca²⁺): Enters through NMDA receptors and triggers cellular changes that strengthen the synapse.

Magnesium (Mg²⁺): Blocks NMDA receptors at resting potential; depolarization removes the block.

How LTP Occurs

1. Glutamate is released from the presynaptic neuron.

2. Glutamate binds to AMPA receptors, allowing sodium to enter.

3. The postsynaptic neuron depolarizes.

4. The magnesium block is removed from NMDA receptors.

5. NMDA receptors allow calcium to enter.

6. Calcium triggers changes that strengthen synaptic communication, including increased AMPA receptor activity.