Unit 1 Psychology: History, Research Methods, Learning, and Memory

Vocabulary practice flashcards generated from the Unit 1 Psychology Study Guide covering key terminology in history, perspectives, research methods, classical and operant conditioning, cognitive learning, and memory systems.

Psychology

The study/science of behavior (observable actions) and mental processes (can’t be observed).

Wilhelm Wundt

Generally considered to be the founder of psychology.

BioPsychoSocial Approach

An approach to understanding psychology (also known as the Eclectic Approach) that considers biological, psychological, and social perspectives.

Critical Thinking

Carefully evaluating claims and evidence by asking questions, considering alternative explanations, and avoiding conclusions that are not supported by evidence.

Curiosity (Scientific Attitude)

Part of the scientific attitude defined by asking: when put to the test, can its predictions be confirmed?

Skepticism (Scientific Attitude)

Part of the scientific attitude defined by asking: what do you mean? How do you know?

Humility (Scientific Attitude)

Part of the scientific attitude expressed as: that was unexpected! Let's explore further.

Theory

A broad, well-supported explanation that organizes observations and generates predictions.

Hypothesis

A specific, testable prediction derived from a theory.

Descriptive Research Methods

Research methods consisting of objective observations of people, including case studies, naturalistic observations, and surveys/interviews.

Case Study

In-depth analyses of individuals or groups. It can suggest directions for future studies, but the individual studied may be atypical.

Naturalistic Observation

Recording the natural behavior of many individuals without manipulating the environment.

Survey Methods

A research design asking people to report their own behavior and opinions.

Framing Bias

A bias where wording or presentation alters how an individual answers a question (e.g., choosing surgery when told 90% survive vs. 10% die).

Random Sample

A representative sample that represents the general population of interest to give a deeper understanding of the overall population.

Margin of Error

The range of uncertainty around a poll result.

Socially Desirable Responding

A response bias where participants tell researchers what they want to hear because they are worried their answers will haunt them.

Non-response Bias

A survey bias that occurs when participants skip certain questions or do not finish the survey.

Acquiescence Bias

A survey bias where participants agree often because agreeing requires less thought.

Correlation

A measure of how closely two factors vary together, or how well you can predict a change in one variable from observing a change in the other variable.

Correlation Coefficient

A statistic measuring the strength and direction of the relationship between variables, ranging from $-1.00$ to $+1.00$.

Positive Correlation

A relationship where both variables move in the same direction (both increasing or both decreasing).

Negative Correlation

A relationship where as one variable increases, the other variable decreases.

Correlation vs. Causation

The principle that correlation shows variables are related but does not establish that one variable causes the other.

Independent Variable

The variable the researcher deliberately changes or manipulates in an experiment.

Dependent Variable

The outcome or response that is measured in an experiment.

Experimental Group

The group in an experiment that receives the experimental manipulation or treatment.

Control Group

The comparison group that does not receive the experimental manipulation or receives a control condition.

Confounding Variable

An outside variable that could affect the results and provide an alternative explanation for a relationship between the variables being studied.

Random Assignment

Assigning participants to experimental conditions by chance so that preexisting differences are more evenly distributed across groups.

Placebo Effect

A change in a person's thoughts, feelings, or behavior that happens because they expect a treatment to work, even when the treatment has no active medical ingredient.

Double-Blind Procedure

A procedure in which neither the participants nor the researchers interacting with them know who is receiving which condition.

Experimenter Bias

A researcher's expectations unintentionally influencing participants, observations, or interpretation of results.

Research Replication

Repeating a study to see whether its findings can be reproduced.

Andrew Wakefield Study

A retracted 1998 study that falsely claimed a link between the MMR vaccine and autism based on fraudulent research practices.

Confidentiality (Ethics)

Protecting participants' private information and not disclosing identifiable research data except as permitted by study procedures and applicable rules.

Informed Consent

Giving participants enough information about a study, including relevant risks and procedures, to make a voluntary decision about whether to participate.

Debriefing

Explaining the study to participants after participation, including its purpose and any deception used, and addressing questions or concerns.

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

A committee that reviews research involving human participants before it begins to help ensure risks are minimized and participants are treated ethically.

Psychodynamic Psychology

A theoretical perspective (Freudian psychology) emphasizing unconscious processes, early experiences, and inner conflicts.

Behaviorism

A theoretical perspective focusing on observable behavior and how behavior is shaped by environmental stimuli, conditioning, reinforcement, and punishment.

Humanistic Psychology

A perspective emphasizing conscious experience, personal growth, free will, meaning, and the pursuit of one's potential.

Cognitive Psychology

The study of mental processes such as thinking, attention, perception, language, problem solving, and memory.

Biological Psychology

An approach examining how the brain, nervous system, genetics, hormones, and biological processes relate to behavior and mental processes.

Sociocultural Psychology

An approach examining how social relationships, culture, groups, and cultural norms influence behavior and mental processes.

Psychologists vs. Psychiatrists

Psychologists provide assessment, research, and psychotherapy; Psychiatrists are medical doctors specializing in mental health who can prescribe medication.

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that the outcome was more predictable than it actually was.

Overconfidence

The tendency to be more confident in the accuracy of our judgments or predictions than the evidence warrants.

Perceiving Patterns in Random Events

The tendency to see meaningful patterns or connections in events that are actually random or unrelated.

Learning

A relatively enduring change in behavior or knowledge that results from experience.

Classical Conditioning

Learning in which an originally neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus and eventually produces a learned response.

Stimulus

An event or object that can trigger or influence behavior.

Response

The behavior or reaction produced by a stimulus.

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

A stimulus that initially does not produce the target response (e.g., the bell before conditioning).

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

A stimulus that naturally produces a response without prior learning (e.g., food in Pavlov's experiment).

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A previously neutral stimulus that has been associated with an unconditioned stimulus and now produces a learned response (e.g., the bell after conditioning).

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

An unlearned, naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus (e.g., salivation produced by food).

Conditioned Response (CR)

A learned response to a previously neutral conditioned stimulus (e.g., salivation produced by the bell after conditioning).

Acquisition (Classical Conditioning)

The initial stage of classical conditioning in which the association between the neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimulus is learned.

Extinction (Classical Conditioning)

The weakening or disappearance of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus.

Spontaneous Recovery

The reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a rest period.

Stimulus Generalization

The tendency for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to also produce the conditioned response.

Stimulus Discrimination

The ability to distinguish the conditioned stimulus from other similar stimuli and respond only to the appropriate stimulus.

Higher Order Conditioning

Occurs when a new neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus by being paired with an already established conditioned stimulus.

Little Albert Study

A conditioning study by John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner where a child was conditioned to fear a white rat by pairing it with a loud frightening noise.

Operant Conditioning

Learning in which the consequences of a voluntary behavior influence how likely that behavior is to occur again.

Thorndike's Law of Effect

Behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.

Positive Reinforcement

Strengthening a response by adding a pleasurable consequence.

Negative Reinforcement

Strengthening a response by removing an undesirable consequence.

Positive Punishment

Decreasing a behavior by adding something unpleasant or aversive.

Negative Punishment

Decreasing a behavior by taking away something pleasant or desired.

Continuous Reinforcement

Reinforcing every correct response; teaches new behaviors quickly, but the behavior weakens rapidly when reinforcement stops.

Intermittent Reinforcement

Reinforcing responses only part of the time; produces persistent behavior resistant to extinction.

Fixed Ratio Schedule

Reinforcement occurs after a set number of responses (e.g., receiving a bonus after every 10 items produced).

Fixed Interval Schedule

Reinforcement becomes available after a fixed amount of time (e.g., receiving a weekly paycheck).

Variable Ratio Schedule

Reinforcement occurs after an unpredictable number of responses (e.g., slot-machine gambling).

Variable Interval Schedule

Reinforcement becomes available after unpredictable time periods (e.g., checking email).

Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA)

Applies principles of learning, especially reinforcement and consequences, to increase useful behaviors and decrease unwanted behaviors.

Token Economy

A system where tokens are given for desired behaviors and can later be exchanged for rewards.

Insight Learning

Occurs when you suddenly realize how to solve a problem without the use of trial and error (e.g., Kohler's chimps).

Latent Learning

Learning that occurs without immediately being demonstrated and without obvious reinforcement (e.g., Tolman's rats in a maze).

Observational Learning

Occurs when a person learns by watching another person's behavior and its consequences, rather than through direct experience alone.

Albert Bandura

The researcher responsible for describing Observational Learning and conducting the Bobo doll study.

Memory

The system involved in encoding, storing, and retrieving information.

Encoding

The process of getting information into memory and processing it so it can be stored.

Storage (Memory)

The retention of encoded information over time.

Retrieval (Memory)

The process of bringing stored information back into conscious awareness or use.

Implicit Memory

Retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations without conscious awareness (nondeclarative memory).

Explicit Memory

Retention of facts and personal events that can be consciously retrieved (declarative memory).

Automatic Processing

Processing that occurs with little conscious effort and often involves routine or well-learned information.

Effortful Processing

Memory processing that requires conscious attention and mental effort.

Depth of Processing Model

Assumes that information processed deeply is more likely to make it to long-term memory than information processed in a shallow manner.

Sensory Memory

The brief retention of incoming sensory information, consisting of iconic memory and echoic memory.

Iconic Memory

The visual aspect of sensory memory, typically lasting for a few tenths to one-half of a second.

Echoic Memory

Auditory sensory memory involving the ability to briefly remember sounds for about 3 to 4 seconds.

Short-Term Memory / Working Memory

Temporarily holds and actively manipulates a limited amount of information for a brief period (generally 20–30 seconds without rehearsal).

Semantic Memory

Explicit memory for general knowledge of facts.

Episodic Memory

Explicit memory for events and/or personal experiences.

Priming

An implicit memory process where exposure to one stimulus unconsciously affects responses to a subsequent stimulus.

Procedural Memory

Implicit memory for motor skills and/or actions (e.g., riding a bike or typing).