PSY2012 Ch.6 - Learning

learning

a relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience

behaviorism

theory of learning that focuses solely on observable behaviors, discounting the importance of such mental activity as thinking, wishing, and hoping

associative learning

learning in which an association is made between two events

observational learning

learning that occurs when a person observes and imitates another’s behavior; also called modeling or imitation

conditioning

the process of learning associations

classical conditioning

a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response

Ivan Pavlov

Russian physiologist famous for his study of digestion in dogs; stumbled across classical conditioning principles

unconditioned stimulus

a stimulus that produces a response without prior learning (e.g. dog food)

unconditioned response

unlearned response that is automatically elicited by an unconditional stimulus (e.g. salivation to food)

conditioned stimulus

a previously neutral stimulus that eventually elicits the unconditioned response after being associated with the unconditioned stimulus (e.g. the bell)

conditioned response

the learned response to the conditioned stimulus that occurs after the pairing of a conditioned stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus (e.g. salivation to the bell)

acquisition

the initial learning of the stimulus-response link; timing, contingency, predictability are important

generalization (classical conditioning)

the tendency of a new stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus to elicit a response that is similar to the conditioned response (e.g. a bell elicits a response, and so does a wind chime)

discrimination (classical conditioning)

the process of learning to respond to certain stimuli and not to others (e.g. responding only when bell rings, no other sounds)

extinction (classical conditioning)

the weakening of the conditioned response in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus

spontaneous recovery

the process by which a conditioned response can recur after a time delay without further conditioning

counterconditioning

procedure for weakening a conditioned response by associating the conditioned stimulus with a new response incompatible with the prior one

operant conditioning

form of associative learning in which the consequence of a behavior changes the probability of the behavior’s occurrence (i.e. consequences affect future actions)

Thorndike’s Law of Effect

states that behaviors followed by positive outcomes are strengthened, whereas behaviors followed by negative consequences are weakened

shaping

rewards are given as subjects get closer to approximating each step of the task

reinforcement

process by which a stimulus or an event strengthens or increases the probability of a behavior or an event that it follows

positive reinforcement

the frequency of a behavior increases because it is followed by a rewarding stimulus

primary reinforcement

the use of reinforcers that are innately satisfying (e.g. food, water, sex)

secondary reinforcement

the use of reinforcers that are learned or conditioned (e.g. praise, eye contact, pat on the back)

negative reinforcement

following a behavior with the removal of an unpleasant stimulus to increase the frequency of the behavior

punishment

a consequence that decreases the likelihood that a behavior will occur

positive punishment

a behavior decreases when it is followed by the addition of an unpleasant stimulus (e.g. spanking, electric shock)

negative punishment

a behavior decreases when a positive stimulus is removed from it (e.g. time-out, taking away toys)

continuous reinforcement

behavior is reinforced every time it occurs

partial reinforcement

behavior is reinforced only a portion of the time

schedules of reinforcement

timetables that determine when a behavior will be reinforced

fixed-ratio schedule

schedule that reinforces a behavior after a set number of behaviors (e.g. payment after every 20 commissions)

variable-ratio schedule

schedule in which behaviors are rewarded an average number of times but on an unpredictable basis (e.g. slot machines)

fixed-interval schedule

schedule determined by the amount of time elapsed since the last behavior was rewarded (e.g. every 4 hours you get morphine for pain relief)

variable-interval schedule

schedule in which behavior is reinforced after a variable amount of time has elapsed (e.g. fishing)

generalization (operant conditioning)

tendency to give the same response to similar stimuli

discrimination (operant conditioning)

tendency to respond to stimuli that signal that a behavior will or will not be reinforced

extinction (operant conditioning)

the situation where, because a previously reinforced behavior is no longer reinforced, there is a decreased tendency to perform the behavior

attention

in observational learning, you must attend to what the model is doing or saying

retention

in observational learning, you must code the information & keep it in memory

motor reproduction

in observational learning, you must be able to imitate the model’s action

reinforcement

in observational learning, you must be motivated by an adequate reward to reproduce the behavior

cognitive map

an organism’s mental representation of the structure of physical space

latent learning

unreinforced learning that is not immediately reflected in behavior

insight learning

a form of the problem solving in which the organism develops a sudden insight into or understanding of the problem’s solution (Aha!)

instinctive drift

the tendency of animals to revert to instinctive behavior that interferes with learning

preparedness

the species-specific biological predisposition to learn in certain ways but not others

learned helplessness

phenomenon of learning through experience that outcomes are not controllable; occurs when an organism exhibits symptoms of depression when an aversive stimulus is inescapable

escape learning

when an organism acquires a response that decreases or ends some aversive stimulation (e.g. shock from the floor, dog jumps to other side to avoid shock)

avoidance learning

when an organism acquires a response that prevents some aversive stimulation from occurring (e.g. light comes on before shock occurs, dog jumps to other side of box to avoid shock before it even happens)