PSC 120 Final Exam study guide

Party identification

is the psychological attachment an individual has to a political party, influencing their voting behavior and political preferences. This identity develops early in a person's life mainly through family and social influences.

Negative partisanship

political phenomenon where voters form their political identity and cast ballots primarily out of hostility, disdain, or fear of an opposing political party rather than positive support for their own party's platform, leaders, or candidates.

Party system

is the system of relationships among political parties in a given political entity, typically characterized by the number of parties, the nature of their competition, and their role in governance.

Realignment

is a significant and lasting shift in the party system, usually triggered by social, economic, or political changes that redefine party coalitions and voter alignments.

Gender Gap (In voting)

refers to the observed differences in voting preferences and behaviors between men and women, often resulting in women favoring certain candidates or parties at different rates than men. Women, for example, may vote more frequently for Democratic candidates than men, reflecting differing priorities and issues.

Interest Groups

are organizations of people who share common objectives and actively seek to influence public policy and decision-making to achieve their goals. They may represent a wide range of interests, including economic, social, or environmental issues, and often engage in advocacy, lobbying, and public campaigns.

Lobbying

the act of trying to persuade public officials, legislators, or regulatory agencies to make, change, or defeat laws and policies that benefit a specific organization, industry, or cause

Descriptive representation

idea that a governing body—such as a legislature, cabinet, or court—should physically and demographically "look like" the population it serves in terms of identity categories like race, gender, ethnicity, religion, language, and sexual orientation. It focuses on who the officeholders are (their background and characteristics) rather than what they actually do in office.

Substantive representation

what representatives actually do in office to "act for" and advance the policy preferences, needs, and interests of the people they represent. Unlike other forms of political representation, it shifts the focus from who the politician is to how they legislate and govern.

Incumbency

refers to the current holder of a political office or position, as well as the period of time they spend in that office.

Gerrymandring

the political manipulation of electoral district boundaries to give one political party, group, or incumbent an unfair advantage in elections. 

Political Action Committee (PAC)

a tax-exempt organization that pools campaign contributions from members and donates those funds to campaigns for or against political candidates, ballot initiatives, or legislation.

SuperPAC

a type of U.S. political action committee that can raise and spend unlimited sums of money to advocate for or against political candidates

Markup

the legislative process in which a congressional committee or subcommittee debates, amends, and rewrites the specific text of a proposed bill before deciding whether to send it to the full chamber for a vote.

Sponsor

A member of Congress who introduces a bill and supports it throughout the legislative process, helping promote and advocate for its passage.

Standing Committee

A permanent committee in Congress that focuses on a specific area of legislation, such as agriculture, foreign affairs, or the budget.

Conference Committee

A temporary committee made up of House and Senate members that resolves differences between the House and Senate versions of the same bill before it can become law.

Select Committee

is a temporary legislative committee established for a specific, limited purpose—such as investigating a major issue, conducting oversight, or studying a policy area that does not fit neatly into the jurisdiction of existing permanent committees.

Filibuster

A Senate tactic used to delay or prevent a vote on a bill by extending debate or using other procedural methods.
It can be ended through a cloture vote, which generally requires 60 senators.

Cloture

A Senate procedure used to end debate on a bill and move toward a final vote; it generally requires 60 votes.

Electoral College

The system used to elect the U.S. president in which voters choose state electors who formally cast votes for president and vice president.

Veto

The president’s power to reject a bill passed by Congress, preventing it from becoming law unless Congress overrides the veto with a two-thirds vote in both chambers.

Pocket Veto

A presidential action that occurs when Congress adjourns during the 10-day period the president has to consider a bill, preventing the bill from becoming law without a formal veto.

Express powers (of the president)

Powers specifically written in the Constitution and given directly to the president, such as serving as commander in chief and granting pardons.

Delegated powers (of the president)

Powers that Congress gives to the president through laws because Congress cannot handle every responsibility itself.

Executive order

A directive issued by the president that manages operations of the federal government and has the force of law, within constitutional and statutory limits.

Signing statement

A written statement issued by the president when signing a bill into law, often explaining how the president interprets or intends to enforce the law.

Bureaucracy

The system of government agencies and officials responsible for carrying out laws, providing services, and implementing government policies.

Spoils system

A system in which government jobs are given to political supporters as rewards for their loyalty or help during an election.

Merit system

A system in which government employees are hired and promoted based on qualifications, skills, and performancerather than political connections.

Original jurisdiction

a court’s power to hear and decide a case for the first time, rather than reviewing a lower court's decision on appeal.

Appellate jurisdiction

A court’s authority to review a decision made by a lower court and determine whether legal errors occurred.

Judicial review

The power of the courts to determine whether laws or government actions are constitutional.

Marbury v. Madison

The Supreme Court case that established judicial review, giving the Court the power to declare laws unconstitutional.

Writ of certiorari

An order issued by the Supreme Court to review a case decided by a lower court.

Judicial activism

A judicial approach in which judges are more willing to interpret the Constitution broadly and strike down laws or make significant legal changes.

Judicial restraint

A legal philosophy that encourages judges to limit the exercise of their own power. It asserts that courts should hesitate to strike down laws or create new public policies, leaving those responsibilities to the elected legislative and executive branches.

Originalism/Strict constructionism

The belief that the Constitution should be interpreted according to its original meaning and the way it was understood when written.

Living document

The belief that the Constitution’s meaning can evolve and be interpreted differently as society and circumstances change.