SOC exam 2

Conflict theory of deviance

The idea that rules and punishments are created by powerful groups to protect their interests and control less powerful groups.

Fair Sentencing Act of 2010

A federal law that reduced the sentencing gap between crack and powder cocaine offenses from 100:1 down to 18:1.

Labeling theory

The view that having a deviant reputation affects how society treats you and how you view yourself.

Differential association theory

Edwin Sutherland's concept that people learn deviant behavior from the close friends and groups they spend time with.

Primary deviance

The first act of rule-breaking, which does not yet affect a person's self-identity.

Secondary deviance

Rule-breaking that occurs after a person accepts a negative label and incorporates it into their identity.

Tertiary deviance

The process of turning a previously negative deviant label into something positive or normal.

Thomas theorem

The idea that if people believe a situation is real, their actions based on that belief make the results real.

Self-fulfilling prophecy

A belief or expectation that leads to actions that cause the original belief to come true.

White-collar crime

Nonviolent, financially motivated crime committed by people in respectable or professional careers.

Foreground approach

Studying a person's immediate situation and present feelings rather than only looking at their past background.

Stigma

A negative social mark or label that devalues an individual and leads to social rejection.

Physical stigma

Social disapproval directed at someone because of a bodily condition, deformity, or outward impairment.

Moral stigma

Social disapproval directed at someone because of perceived flaws in their character or personal behavior.

Tribal stigma

Social disapproval directed at someone based on their membership in a specific racial, religious, or national group.

Passing

Presenting oneself as a member of an accepted group to hide a devalued identity and avoid discrimination.

Code-switching

Changing your speech, style, or behavior to fit into different social settings.

Uniform Crime Reports (UCR)

Annual crime statistics published by the FBI based on offenses officially reported to the police.

National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS)

A national survey that asks people directly about their experiences as crime victims, including crimes not reported to the police.

Violent crime

An illegal act where physical harm to a person is the objective or the method used.

Property crime

An illegal act involving the theft or damage of physical goods without the use of violence against a person.

Deterrence

A goal of punishment meant to discourage people from committing crimes out of fear of the consequences.

Retribution

A goal of punishment based on revenge or payback, holding that an offender deserves to suffer for their crime.

Incapacitation

A goal of punishment that physically prevents an offender from harming society, usually through prison.

Rehabilitation

A goal of punishment aimed at reforming an offender through education or therapy so they can rejoin society.

Social stratification

Society's system of ranking people into layers based on wealth, power, and prestige.

Four basic principles of social stratification

It is societal, persists across generations, is universal but variable, and is supported by beliefs.

Slavery

An extreme system of stratification where people are owned as property and denied freedom.

Caste system

A rigid system of stratification where a person's lifelong status is fixed at birth.

Social class

A ranking based on economic factors where movement between levels is possible.

Apartheid

South Africa's former official policy of racial segregation and white minority rule.

The New Jim Crow

The argument that mass incarceration reproduces racial inequality in modern America.

Socioeconomic status (SES)

A measure of social position based on income, education, and occupation.

Income

Money earned over a period of time, such as wages or salary.

Wealth

The total value of everything owned minus all debts.

Power

The ability to influence decisions and direct the behavior of others.

Prestige

The social respect, honor, and esteem given to an individual or occupation.

Underclass

People who experience persistent, long-term poverty and economic exclusion.

Cycle of wealth inequality

The ongoing process where accumulated family wealth passes advantages across generations.

Intersectionality

The idea that overlapping social identities combine to shape experiences of inequality.

Social mobility

The movement of people up or down between different social classes.

Status inconsistency

Holding different ranking levels across dimensions like wealth, prestige, and power.

American Dream

The belief that individual hard work leads directly to success and upward mobility.

Social stratification

Society's system of ranking people into unequal layers based on resources, power, and prestige.

Bourgeoisie

Karl Marx's term for the capitalist class that owns the means of production.

Proletariat

Karl Marx's term for the working class that sells its labor for wages.

Class consciousness

A shared awareness among workers of their common class position and economic interests.

Weber's three dimensions of stratification

Wealth, power, and prestige.

Occupational prestige

The level of social respect and admiration society attaches to a specific job.

Structural functionalist view of stratification

The view that unequal rewards motivate qualified people to fill demanding, important roles.

Conflict theory of stratification

The view that powerful groups design inequality to protect their own advantages.

Social reproduction

The process through which advantages and disadvantages pass from one generation to the next.

Economic capital

Material resources such as income, savings, property, and investments.

Social capital

Resources and opportunities gained through personal relationships and social networks.

Cultural capital

Knowledge, habits, skills, and etiquette that provide social advantages.

Symbolic interactionist view of class

The view that people express and read social status through everyday symbols, dress, and speech.

Socioeconomic status (SES)

A composite ranking based on income, education level, and occupation.

Homogamy

Choosing a partner who has similar social characteristics.

Heterogamy

Choosing a partner who has substantially different social characteristics.

Hypergamy

Marrying or partnering into a higher social class.

Hypogamy

Marrying or partnering into a lower social class.

Redlining

The discriminatory practice of denying loans and investment to certain minority neighborhoods.

Social mobility

The movement of individuals or families between different social class positions.

Spurious relationship

A false link between two variables that is actually driven by an unmeasured third factor.

Deaths of despair

Fatalities resulting from suicide, drug overdose, and alcohol-related conditions linked to hardship.

Race

A socially constructed category based on perceived physical characteristics such as skin color and hair texture.

Ethnicity

A shared cultural identity based on ancestry, language, religion, or cultural traditions.

Minority group

A group that experiences unequal treatment and has less social power relative to a dominant group.

Dominant group

The group in society that holds the greatest power, social status, and access to resources.

Stereotype

An oversimplified belief or generalization applied to all members of a group that ignores individual differences.

Prejudice

A preconceived attitude, opinion, or judgment about an individual based solely on their group membership.

Discrimination

Unequal or unfair behavioral treatment directed against people based on their social category.

Racism

Beliefs, practices, and social systems that create and maintain racial inequality.

Institutional racism

Policies and practices within specific organizations that systematically produce disadvantages for certain racial groups.

Structural racism

Interconnected social institutions across society that collectively generate and reinforce racial disadvantages.

Functionalist perspective on race

The view examining how group solidarity, cultural traditions, and social inequality affect societal stability and order.

Conflict theory of race

The view that dominant groups maintain wealth, power, and resources by creating systems that disadvantage minority groups.

Symbolic interactionist view of race

The view that racial identities, labels, and meanings are learned and reproduced through everyday face-to-face interactions.

Assimilation

The process through which a minority group adopts the customs, language, and cultural practices of the dominant group.

Cultural pluralism

A pattern where distinct cultural groups retain their unique heritage while participating fully in the same society.

Segregation

The physical and social separation of groups within neighborhoods, schools, or public spaces.

Genocide

The deliberate and systematic destruction, in whole or in part, of a national, ethnic, racial, or religious group.

Expulsion

The forced removal of a specific subordinate group from a geographic area or territory.

Socialization

The lifelong process through which individuals learn society's norms, values, beliefs, and behaviors.

Intersectionality

A framework examining how overlapping social identities interact to shape distinct experiences of advantage and disadvantage.