Nervous and Reproductive Systems

Comprehensive review flashcards covering the anatomy and physiology of the human nervous system, female reproductive system, and male reproductive system.

What are the three primary functions of the nervous system?

Sensory Input, Integration, and Motor Output.

What is the role of sensory input in the nervous system?

It uses millions of sensory receptors to monitor changes occurring both inside and outside the body and gather information (such as light, sound, touch, heat, smell, taste).

What occurs during the integration function of the nervous system?

The Central Nervous System (CNS) processes and interprets sensory information and makes decisions about what should be done at each moment.

What is motor output and what does its transmission cause?

It effects a response by activating muscles or glands via the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS), triggering an activity or causing an effect such as muscle contraction.

What are neurons, and how are nerve impulses defined?

Neurons are the functional units of the nervous system that send messages by conveying a neural impulse; nerve impulses are signals resulting from the movement of charged ions across the cell membrane.

What are dendrites?

Thin branching extensions of the cell body that conduct nerve impulses toward the cell body.

What is the cell body of a neuron?

The main processing center of the cell.

What is an axon?

Also called a nerve fiber, it is a single branch which conducts nerve impulses away from the cell body.

What are the three functional types of neurons and their respective roles?

Sensory / Afferent neurons (carry information from sensory receptors to the CNS), Interneurons / Association neurons (carry and process sensory information), and Motor / Efferent neurons (convey information from the CNS to muscles and glands).

What constitutes the Central Nervous System (CNS) and what are its responsibilities?

It consists of the brain and spinal cord, which act as the integrating and command centers of the nervous system, responsible for higher neural functions such as memory, learning, and emotion.

What constitutes the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)?

It consists mainly of the nerves that extend from the brain and spinal cord, leading into and out of the CNS.

What percentages of water and oxygen make up the brain?

$75\%$ water and $20\%$ oxygen.

What is the anatomical difference between gyri and sulci?

Gyri (singular: gyrus) are the elevated ridges on the surface of the brain, while sulci (singular: sulcus) are the shallow grooves that separate the gyri.

What are the three anatomical subdivisions of the brain?

The Hindbrain (located toward the lower back of the skull), the Midbrain (a narrow region connecting hindbrain with forebrain), and the Forebrain (the front of the brain).

What are the four principal parts of the brain?

Brain Stem, Cerebellum, Diencephalon, and Cerebrum.

What structures make up the brain stem?

The Midbrain, Pons, and Medulla Oblongata.

What is the pons and what does its name mean?

Located between the midbrain and medulla oblongata, it controls certain respiratory functions; pons means "BRIDGE".

What are the primary functions of the medulla oblongata?

It is the continuation of the spinal cord that regulates breathing, blood pressure, and heart rate, and contains reflex centers for vomiting, coughing, sneezing, defecating, swallowing, and hiccupping.

What is the function and location of the cerebellum?

It coordinates musculoskeletal movement to maintain posture, balance, and muscle tone; it is located inferior to the occipital lobes of the cerebrum.

What is the corpus callosum?

A very large fiber tract that connects the cerebral hemispheres ("The Great Mediator").

What functions are associated with each of the four cerebral cortex lobes?

Frontal lobe: primary motor area for conscious movement of skeletal muscles; Parietal lobe: somatic sensory area for pain, coldness, and light touch; Temporal lobe: auditory and olfactory area; Occipital lobe: visual area.

What are the key components of the limbic system and their roles?

Hippocampus (long term memory formation), Amygdala (center of emotions such as pleasure and fear), and Diencephalon (deep portion containing the Thalamus, Hypothalamus, Epithalamus, and Ventral Thalamus).

What is the function of the thalamus?

Known as the "Central Relay Station", it processes incoming sensory information and sends it to the appropriate part of the cerebrum.

What functions are regulated by the hypothalamus?

Body temperature, heartbeat, water balance, and blood pressure, along with hunger, thirst, sleep, and sexual arousal (hypothalamus means "below the thalamus").

What is the epithalamus?

A dorsal posterior segment of the diencephalon; epithalamus means "above the thalamus".

Where does the spinal cord extend and what is its role?

It extends from the medulla oblongata of the brain to the area around the first lumbar vertebra in the lower back, serving as a 2-way conduction pathway to and from the brain and acting as the major reflex center.

What are the three layers of the meninges from outermost to innermost?

Dura Mater (outer layer), Arachnoid Mater (middle layer), and Pia Mater (innermost layer).

What are the protective roles of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and the blood-brain barrier?

CSF bathes, cushions, and insulates the CNS from injury; the blood-brain barrier lines the brain's capillaries and helps protect the brain from harmful chemicals.

How many pairs of cranial and spinal nerves comprise the Peripheral Nervous System?

$12\text{ pairs}$ of cranial nerves and $31\text{ pairs}$ of spinal nerves.

What is the difference between the somatic and autonomic nervous systems?

The somatic nervous system is voluntary and controls skeletal muscle; the autonomic nervous system is involuntary and regulates smooth muscles, cardiac muscles, and glands.

How do the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system differ?

Sympathetic ("Fight or Flight") activates during stress and emergencies, slowing digestion and boosting blood flow toward vital organs like the heart, brain, and muscles; Parasympathetic ("Rest and digest") returns body systems to normal, slowing heart rate and respiration while digestion resumes.

What mnemonic is used to remember the twelve cranial nerves?

"Oh, Oh, Oh, To Touch And Feel Very Green Vegetables, A Heaven!"

What are the functions of cranial nerves I through IV (Olfactory, Optic, Oculomotor, Trochlear)?

Olfactory: sense of smell; Optic: sense of vision; Oculomotor: eye movements; Trochlear: aids muscles that move the eyes.

What structures do the trigeminal and abducens nerves innervate or affect?

Trigeminal: eyes, tear glands, scalp, forehead, teeth, gums, lips, and mouth muscles; Abducens: muscle conditioning.

What functions are controlled by the facial and vestibulocochlear nerves?

Facial: taste, facial expressions, tear and salivary glands; Vestibulocochlear: hearing and equilibrium.

What are the functions of cranial nerves IX through XII (Glossopharyngeal, Vagus, Accessory, Hypoglossal)?

Glossopharyngeal: pharynx, tonsils, tongue, carotid arteries, and salivary glands; Vagus: speech, swallowing, heart muscle, smooth muscle, and certain glands; Accessory: muscles of the soft palate, pharynx, larynx, and neck; Hypoglossal: tongue movement.

What is the broad ligament in the female pelvis?

A fold of peritoneum covering the floor of the pelvis that crosses from one side to the other, dividing the pelvis into an anterior part containing the bladder and a posterior part containing the rectum.

How are ovum, ovulation, and fertilization defined?

Ovum: female reproductive cell or egg formed in the ovary; Ovulation: maturing and expulsion of an ovum from the ovary every $28\text{ days}$; Fertilization: union of a female ovum with a spermatozoon.

What are the dimensions and location of the ovaries?

Two flat oval organs lying one on each side of the pelvis, each measuring about $1.5\text{ to }2\text{ inches}$ in length.

What is a Graafian or ovarian follicle and what does it secrete during development?

A cell nest with a fluid vesicle around an ovum that expels an egg after puberty every $28\text{ days}$; it secretes "oestrin" or "folliculin", which causes changes in the breasts and uterine lining.

What is the corpus luteum and what is its function?

The follicle remaining after the ovum has been expelled; it forms new cells that secrete an internal substance to prepare the uterine lining for a fertilized ovum, and dries up if the ovum is not fertilized.

What are the fimbriae of the uterine tubes?

Finger-like processes on the open lateral end of the uterine tubes (fallopian tubes/salpinx), one of which is attached to the ovary.

What are the measurements and three tissue coverings of the uterus?

It measures about $3 \times 2 \times 1\text{ inches}$; its three coverings are the Endometrium (lining membrane), Myometrium (muscle layer), and Peritoneum/Perimetrium (serous covering).

What are the anatomical parts and openings of the uterus?

Parts: Fundus (above openings of uterine tubes), Body (between fundus and constricted part), Cervix (narrow constricted part); Openings: Internal Os (between cervix and body) and External Os (between lower cervix and vagina).

What structures form the female external genitals (vulva/pudendum)?

The labia (majora and minora), mons pubis (cushions the symphysis pubis), clitoris (homologous with the penis), and the vestibule with its glands.

What is the function and location of Bartholin's glands?

Also called vulvo-vaginal glands, they are lobulated racemose glands situated on each side of the vaginal orifice that secrete mucous for lubrication during copulation.

What are Skene's glands (para-urethral glands)?

Orifices just below the outer part of the urethral meatus that run in a tortuous fashion below and parallel to the urethra for a distance of about $1.5\text{ cm}$.

Why does the male reproductive system have little practical value to the Radiologic Technologist (RT)?

Because radiography is of little help in the diagnosis of conditions affecting the male organs.

What are the dimensions and structure of the testes?

They are two glands located in the scrotum below the pubic bones, each measuring about $1.0 \times 1.5\text{ inches}$ in diameter and containing many minute tubules in which sperms are formed.

What is the epididymis?

A prominence on the back of each testis composed of a single tube coiled upon itself.

What anatomical path is taken by the ductus deferens (vas deferens)?

It is a continuation of the duct of the epididymis that passes from the lower end of a testis up to the scrotum and in front of the pubic bone to the lower abdominal wall.

How are the ejaculatory ducts formed and where do they open?

Formed by the union of the ductus deferens and the duct from the seminal vesicle on each side, passing through the prostate gland to open into the prostatic urethra.

What are the dimensions and location of the prostate gland?

A single globular gland about $1.5\text{ inches}$ in diameter that lies below the outlet of the urinary bladder and empties into the prostatic urethra.

What are the bulbourethral glands?

Two small glands that lie on each side of the urethra below the prostate.

What are the glans and prepuce of the penis?

The glans is the distal enlarged end of the penis, and the prepuce (or foreskin) is the covering of the glans penis.