Exam 2 (anatomy and physiology)

tissue

group of cells with similar structure and function

epithelial tissue

protect, secret, absorbs; widespread throughout the whole body

avascular

nourished by underlying connective tissue (no blood vessels)

Simple Squamous

single thin layer, flattened cells that are packed tightly together (diffusion and filtrartion)

location: line alevoli of lungs, lines blood vessels, forms serous membranes that cover organs

Simple cubodial

single layer of cube shaped cells (secretion and absorption

location: walls of kidneys, lines ducts, and covers ovaries

simple columnar

function (ciliated): propels mucus or reproductive cells

function (nonciliated): secretion and absorption

location: digestive tract and mucus membranes that line body cavity

Pseudostratified columnar

cells vary in length, most contain cilia (absorption, secretion, propelling mucus)

location: respiratory tract, lining trachea

stratified squamous

function: protective covering where friction is common

location: lining of skin, mouth, esophagus, vagina, and anal canal

stratified cuboidal

many layer of flattened cells (protective covering where friction happens)

location: lines duct of mammary gland, sweat glands, salivary glands, pancreas and ovarian follicles

stratified columnar

surface cells are columnar and cells underneath vary in size and shape (protection, secretion)

location: lines male urethra, lines large gland ducts

transitonal

designed to stretch and then return to normal size (stretchability, protection)

location: lining urinary bladder, urethra, and ureters

glandular tissue

function: produces and secretes substances into ducts or bodily fluids

endocrine gland

ductless, secretions (hormones) diffuse into blood vessels (thyroid, adrenals, and pituitary)

Exocrine gland

secretions empty through ducts to the epithelial surface (sweat, oil, liver, internal and external glands)

merocrine

releases secretions by exocytosis (pancreas, salivary glands, sweat glands)

apocrine

pinch off portions of their cell bodies during secretions (mammary glands)

holocrine

release entire cells that disintegrate to release their secretions (oil glands)

connective tissue

throughout the whole body, bind body tissues together

fibroblast

stays in tissue for a long time, secretes fibers

mast cells

stays in tissue, releases heparin and histamine

macrophage

function as phagocytes, defends against infection and foreign particles

collagen (white) fibers

fibroblast, hold structures together (tendon, ligaments)

elastic (yellow) fibers

fibroblasts, stretchy and adds flexibility (vocal cords)

reticular fibers

fibroblasts, thin collagen fibers that provide delicate support (spleen)

areolar tissue

found underlying all epithelial tissues and functions to hold organs in place (between muscles, forms lamina propria)

adipose tissue

functions as a heat insulator and located in the subcutaneous layer below the skin (surrounds kidneys, behind eyeballs, between muscles)

reticular tissues

loose connective, forms framework for some internal organs (liver, spleen)

dense connective tissues

binds body parts (tendons, ligarments, white layer of eyeball)

hyaline cartilage

forms the larynx and costal cartilage that attaches ribs to sternum (larynx, attaches ribs to breastbone, epiphyseal plates)

elastic cartliage

supports, protects, provides flexible framework (framework for external ears, larynx)

fibrocartliage

supports, protects, provides basic framework (intervertebral discs, knees, pelvic girdle)

blood

composed primarily of fluid and transports nutrients and respiratory gases throughout the body (produced by red bone marrow)

skeletal muscle tissue

attaches to bones to produce body movement, under voluntary control, producing facial expressions (attached to skeleton)

smooth muscle tissue

involuntarily controlled, moves food through digestive system (digestive tract, blood vessels, urinary bladder)

cardiac muscle tissues

found in the heart, involuntary control (visceral organs)

nervous tissue

function: receives and transmits electrochemical impulses

location: brain, spinal cord, nerves

serous membrane

lines body cavities not open to the outside, simple squamous epithelium with an underlying layer of areolar connective tissue (pleura, pericardium, peritoneum)

mucous membrane

lines cavities that are open to the outside of the body, moist membrane, stratified squamous/simple columnar (oral/nasal cavities)

cuatneous membranes

skin, superficial epidermis

synovial membranes

lines fibrous capsules surrounding joints, composed of entirely connective tissues

hyperthermia

response to excess heat, sweat glands activated (extreme cases: fatigue, confusion, loss of coordination)

hypothermia

response to excess cooling, shivering (extreme cases: weakness, dizziness, irregular heatbeat)

layers of epidermis

corneum, lucidum, granulosum, spinosum, basale (come let’s get sun burned)

stratum corneum

outermost layer, composed of dead keratinocytes (make keratin), sheds

stratum lucidum

found in thick, hairless skin (palms, soles), composed of dead keratinocytes

stratum granulosum

composed of flattened keratinocytes

stratum spinosum

keratinocytes become flattened

stratum basale

innermost layer, cells undergo mitosis, contains melanocytes (make melanin)

melanin

pigment produced by melanocytes, found in stratum basale, provides protection against UV radiation

epidermis

superficial layer, skin color: genetic, environmental (uv radiation), physiological (blood circulation in blood vessels), diet and disease (carotene pigment found in yellow vegetables)

dermis

consists of (areolar and dense connective tissue, blood vessels, nerves, sensory receptors, hair follicles, sebaceous and sweat glands)

hypodermis

not part of the skin, binds to skin underlying organs, composed of areolar and adipose tissue, contains major blood vessels that supply skin

nails

protective covering, composed of free edge, body, root

nail plate

overlies nail bed

lunula

actively growing region of the nail root

nail folds

overlap the edges of the nail

hair

found in everywhere (except nipples, external genitalia), composed of dead keratinized epithelial cells, hair follicles have an arrector pili muscle attached

sebaceous glands

secrete sebum (oil), all over body except for palms and soles

sudoriferous glands

secretes sweat, eccrine: responds to temp, apocrine: responds to fear, emotion, pain, sexual arousal

modified apocrine glands

ceruminous glands: secretes ear wax, mammary glands: secretes milk

inflammation (wound healing)

blood vessels dilate, clotting (proteins, oxygen, and immune) cells go to the area, blood clot forms

granulation tissue forms (wound healing)

growth of new capillaries, fibroblasts create collagen to bind wounds together, phagocytes remove debris and dead cells

regeneration of surface epithelium (wound healing)

scab protects damaged region, scab comes and tissue is reformed

wound healing

tissues that regenerate easily (epithelial tissue, fibrous connective tissue), tissues that regenerate poorly (skeletal muscle), tissues that are replaced w/ scar (cardiac, nervous)

burns

results in loss of body fluids and invasion of bacteria

rules of nines

determines extent of burns, body is divided into 11 area, each is (9%), genitals are (1%)

first degree burns

partial thickness burn, damage to epidermis, red and swollen skin (suburn)

second degree burns

partial thickness burn, damage to epidermis and upper dermis, red with blisters (stovetop burn)

third degree burn

full thickness burn, destroys entire skin layer, requires skin grafts, burn is gray/black (fire)

critical burns

over 25% of the body has second degree burns, over 10% has third degree burns

basal cell carcinoma

most common type, least malignant, arises from stratum basale

squamous cell caricoma

sun induced, curable, metastasizes to lymph nodes if not removed, arises from stratum spinosum

malignant melanoma

most deadly, metastasizes to lymph nodes and blood vessels easily, detection uses ABCD rule

A rule

asymmetry (two sides do not match)

B rule

border irregularity (borders of the mole are not smooth)

C rule

color (different colors in pigmented area)

D rule

diameter (spot is larger than 6mm in diameter)

epiphyseal line

seen in growing children, turns into line when older

osteocytes

situated within cavities known as lacunae

canaliculi

forms transport system that connects osteocytes to through the bone marrow

intramembranous ossification

boones develope from sheet like layers of connective tissue, includes bones of the skull and clavicles

endochondral ossification

formed from a hyaline cartilage model, includes majority of bones except bones of skull and clavicles

bone remodeling

3-5% of bone calcium are exchanged each year, occurs because of blood calcium levels& pull of gravity and muscles on the skeleton

parathyroid hormone (PTH)

released when blood calcium levels are low, activates osteoclasts, bone is broken down and calcium is released in the blood

calcitonin

released when blood calcium levels are high, activates osteoblasts, calcium is deposited into bone

factors affecting bone developement

nutrition (vitamin D), hormones (growth and sex), physical exercise

closed fracture

simple, break does not penetrate skin

open fracture

compound, break penetrates skin

reduction

realignment of broken bone ends (closed and open)

immobilization

cast or traction

Skeleton

axial (80 bones), appendicular (126)

paranasal sinuses

hollow portions around the nasal cavity, function: lighten the skull, amplify sounds made as we speak

hyoid bone

only bone that does not articulate with another bone, serves as a moveable base for tongue, allows for swallowing and speech

synarthroses

immovable joints

amphiarthroses

slightly moveable joints

diarthroses

freely moveable joints

fibrous joints

composed of dense connective tissues, immovable (skull)

cartilaginous joints

composed of cartilage, immovable or slightly movable (between first ribs and sternum)

synovial joints

composed of a complex structure, freely movable

endomysium

encloses a single muscle fiber (inside)