cities of vesuvius

natural features of campania

• herculaneum below vesuvius on natural terrace 20m from beachfront, pompeii close to river sarnos

• bay of naples provided safety, ships docked at misenum

• phlegraean fields with bubbling mud, seen as entrance to underworld

• mineral rich soil from lava, salt from evaporated pools of seawater, pumice stone, fish

natural features of campania evidence

1. “this area appears to have been on fire in the past…no doubt this is the reason for its fertility”- strabo

2. “over the years the gods of wine and grain fought the hardest, nowhere do olives produce more oil”- pliny the elder

eruption of 79AD

• herculaneum got 6 surges of 65ft

• pompeii got 5 surges of 12ft but wind blew ash to pompeii

eruption of 79AD ancient evidence

1. “my mother drew attention to a cloud of unusual size and shape…umbrella pine shape”- pliny the younger

2. “fortune helps the brave” pliny the younger about pliny the elder

3. because of pliny the younger we know it was 24th august 79AD

eruption of 79AD modern evidence

1. inscription by worker in Pompeii shows it may have been in october 79AD

2. modern vulcanologist haraldur sigurdsson proposed sequence of eruption (18 hours of ash and pumice, 2.5m deposit on Pompeii, caldera came off, ash avalanche killed pompeii and 400 degree temps killed herculaneum, ash and stone engulfed spaces, flow of dense material covered herculaneum, ash buried entire region)

changing nature of excavations

• earlier excavations focused on displaying power and wealth through artefacts

• 1815-1860 bourbons in power, corrupt bonucci, thefts

• 1863 fiorelli became superintendent scaled maps, plaster casts

• 1910-1923 spinazzola uncovered via dell abbondanza, recostructed facades, displayed in original context

• 1924-1961 maiuri cleared herculaneum, excavated amphitheatre, palaestra, villa of mysteries, attracted visitors

changing representations

• mid 18th-19th century severe and unemotional neoclassical art e.g. Francois Mazois 1824 ‘ruins of pompeii’ engraved illustration

• 18th century romanticism strong emotion e.g. Karl Pavalovich paintings of victims fleeing eruption

• 21st century films e.g. pompeii the last day 2003 are dramatised accounts focusing on individual stories

• virtual reality make sites more accessible e.g. Pompeii Forum project 360 degree VR walking tour of Pompeii

pompeii forum (economy)

• central capitolium (temple to triad)

• marcellum (meat market)

• temple for lares (public deities)

• temple to imperator vespasian

• comitium (town voting area)

• apollo temple

• olitorium (oil and vegetable market)

• thermae

imports (economy)

wine from turkey and greece, oil from libya and spain, gaum from spain

exports (economy)

garum, wine, bronze and metal work

currency (economy)

prices fluctuated, copper asses most common since people didnt trust slaves with denarii

textiles industry (economy)

washing and dyeing of wool, occurred in fullonicae, camel urine prized, guild of fullers, HQ in eumachia building, patron of wool making and dyeing

wine industry (economy)

only a wealthy occupation due to long wait before harvest and high cost of presses, torcula for pressing wine and oil, amphorae shows place of origin and type of wine

oil industry (economy)

same estate as wine, green olive oil for perfume, trapeta separated flesh from pip, torcula pressed, oil used in thermapolia, palaestra and thermae

garum industry (economy)

guts and parts of fish that wouldve been thrown away, salt obtained from salt plant on road to herculaneum, stored in sealed terracotta vessels

bakery industry (economy)

staple food, rarely had own ovens, 30 in pompeii

prostitution industry (economy)

of oriental and greek origin from slave trade, lupanare official pompeii brothel, 25 in total above bars, thermae

garum industry evidence (economy)

• “no other liquid has come to be more highly valued”- pliny the elder

• house of scaurus mosaic shows bottles of garum with stopper on lid

currency evidence (economy)

• limestone table outside apollo temple with official weights and measures, inscription saying it was set up by local council

• “7 days before the Ides bread was worth 8 copper asses but 3 days before the Ides it went down to 2”- graffiti on tavern

bakery industry evidence (economy)

• bakery of modestus had small mills for grinding flour and 81 loaves of carbonised bread

• donkey skeletons attached to mills in pompeii

oil industry evidence (economy)

• glass bottle of solidifed olive oil with stopper indicating trade or transport

• olive press depicted in 4 paintings

• modern isotopic analysis found that each person consumed 20L of olive oil a year

social structure

• paterfamilia

• three social classes; freedborn, freed and slaves

• senatorial elite only males

• local elite generational wealth, agricultural holdings on outskirts

• duumviri 2 chief magistrates law and admin, revising town council

• aediles 2 lower magistrates supervised day to day admin and entertainment

• patrons and clients

social structure evidence

• “to marcus nonius balbus, praetor, pronconsul, patron from the council of herculaneum for his merits”- funeral altar

• pompeii inscription awarding duumvir a contract for constructing a covered theatre

• pompeii bracelet “from the master to his slave girl”

local political life

• from augustus rule 31 BC towns had to reflect rome gov structure

• pompeii colonia with more independence, herculaneum municipia

• ordo decurionem town council of freedborn males of good standing, weights and measures, approved statues

• electoral candidates wore white toga, secret ballot

local political life evidence

• over 2800 pieces of political graffiti found in pompeii

• “the decuriones determined that Marcus Remmius Rufus be given slaves that should not be removed without a decree from the decuriones”- inscription in herculaneum

• “the fullers ask for holconius priscus as duumvir”

features of private buildings (everyday life)

• vestibulum (arched entryway)

• impluvium (body of water on floor of atrium)

• compluvium (hole in the roof for light)

• peristyle (pillared garden)

• lararium (household shrine)

• triclinium (formal banqueting hall)

features of thermae (everyday life)

• palaestra (exercise courtyard)

• destrictarium (final stage of cleaning, scraping off oil and sweat)

• laconicum (sweating room)

• apodyterium (dressing room)

• frigidarium (cold water baths)

• tepidarium (room with warm humid air)

• caldarium (hot plunge baths)

clothing (everyday life)

• tunic with belt for working men and slaves

• stola for women of rank (sleeveless tunic suspended at shoulders)

• toga was formal wear for men, stripe width and colour showing social status

• toga praetexta for magistrates and priests (purple stripe)

health (everyday life)

• high child mortality rates but similar lifespan

• 90% of skulls had Porotic Hyperostosis due to high parasite load

• diet had foods with high antimicrobial properties e.g. figs with streptomyocin which reduced bone disease

• garlic, saffron, opium used for healing, viper bile eye drops, viper meat malignant ulcers

sanitation (everyday life)

• pompeii and herculaneum had aqueduct system, pompeii by river sarnos, herculaneum by nearby streams

• in pompeii water brought to castellum at highest point, circulated through 3 main pipes, supplied fountains, wealthy had private rainwater tanks

• pompeii only had sewer system around forum and bath, herculaneums was well developed

private buildings evidence (everyday life)

• house of julia felix pompeii had public bathhouse, shops and apartments for rent, large summer dining area

• villa of mysteries pompeii had peristyles, private baths, two wine presses and jars

• villa of papyri herculaneum had 1,100 carbonised paper scrolls, two large peristyles and a swimming pool

thermae evidence (everyday life)

• stabian baths occupied half a block, two sets of bath suites, palaestra, figures of bacchus showing indulgence

• “baths used by people of every rank”- pliny the elder

leisure activities evidence (everyday life)

• mosaic in house of faun depicting theatre masks

• large theatre with gladiator barracks, sleeping, eating, punishment areas

• large theatre seated 5000 with women at back upper class at front'

• odeon built 79BC used for mime, theatre, music, structured roof to improve acoustics

• amphitheatre built 70BC seated 20,000, tourism from other areas

clothing evidence (everyday life)

• marcus nonius balbus statue herculaneum wearing toga

• eumachia statue pompeii wearing stola

diet evidence (everyday life)

• region v pompeii thermapolia served hot food, dolia for collecting coins

• carbonised bread in house of quintus granius verus bears a stamp saying made by slave

• 2021 university of york isotopic bone analysis found males got 50% more protein from seafood and more cereals, women had other animal products and locally grown fruit and veg

health evidence (everyday life)

• house of surgeon pompeii central atrium with living quarters and workspaces, scalpels, probes made of bronze and iron

• estelle lazer found no oral hygiene only tooth extraction, dr sarah bisel found 32% of bones had healing or healed trauma, population in good health with robust immunity

sanitation evidence (everyday life)

• 14 water towers in pompeii, 3 in herculaneum

• stabian baths had 38,000L storage tank

• raised stepping stones in pompeii streets prevented flooding

household gods (religion)

• snake for power over wellbeing of family

• vesta goddess of hearth offering of salted cake to fire every day

• genius guardian spirit of family

• manes ancestral spirit

• penates spirit of pantry

• janus two faced god of doorways

• larariums, offering of fruit and wine to maintain pax deorum or goodwill

death (religion)

• death marked by conclamatio where women prep body, relatives invoke name of dead, coin under tongue for charon

• earlier tombs concrete boxes with ornamentation and funerary offerings, age of augustus tomb semicircle bench, amenity for public to sit on

• wealthier individuals buried in sacred border of city pomerium

household religion evidence

• “the most sacred place on earth is the home of each citizen…the centre of his worship and domestic ritual”- cicero

• house of vetti lararium with painting of lares, genius, snake along bottom

greek influence

• romans regarded highly if they spoke or wrote greek

• murals depicted greek mythology

• venus, minerva etc adapted from greek gods

• ionic columns with elaborate, decorative detail,colonnade long sequence of supporting columns

egyptian influence

• symbols in relief of nile, sphinxes, isis due to long term trade between pompeii and alexandria

• cult of isis represented, isis and sarapis popular bc offered possibility of afterlife

greek influence evidence

• graffiti of herculaneum suburban baths written in greek

• alexander mosaic in house of faun, artistry suggested it was a copy of a hellenistic painting

• palaestra pompeii colonnades

• pompeii forum upper storey portico had ionic columns

egyptian influence evidence

• temple of isis pompeii

• nile mosaic house of faun hippos, crocodiles, ibises

• household shrine to isis in house of golden cupids pompeii with Anubis, Isis, Serapis

• water feature in house of julia felix represents delta branch of nile

dna analysis of human remains

• according to archaeologist massimo osanna can learn sex, age, ethnicity, disease

• found that 6 of 13 bodies found in house of Gaius Julius Polybius were closely related

• hard to retrieve from ancient samples esp after high temps

pompeii plaster cast project

• estelle lazer from 1986 onwards

• restoring 90 of the 103 plaster casts recovered

• sorted bones into individuals, better picture of demographics

• age related bone disorders mean longer lifespan than thought

• x rays and ct scans dispelled myth of perfect teeth, found earlier casts with no bones just metal rods

conservation initiatives

• 1997 UNESCO world heritage listing

• herculaneum conservation project 2001 packard institute and british school at rome

• 2011 italy and UNESCO collaborated to restore, financed by italian ministry of cultural heritage and activities

• 2012 great pompeii project 105 million euro funding weather exposure, restoring, CCTV

• in 2022 new director gabriel zuchtriegel preventing climate change damage, ai to reconstruct fragmented frescoes

conservation issues

• 2010 collapse of pompeii house of gladiators

• UNESCO dr jo berry “pompeii will continue to decay unless there is regular basic maintenance”

• stray dogs, weeds, protective perspex over frescoes trapping humidity

• exposing herculaneum boatshed

• vandalism, acidic pigeon droppings herculaneum

study and display of remains

• skeletons originally positioned to entertain, fictional narrative, out of original context

• vermillion accord 1989 ethical framework by world archaeological congress for respect of human remains

• international code of ethics for museums around display

remains evidence

• garden of fugitives pompeii 13 plaster casts in situ

• pompeii guard dog not in situ

• mother and child pompeii 2 unrelated males

negative impacts of tourism

• 2.5 million tourists pompeii a year, half a million herculaneum

• foot traffic wears down surfaces

• 2020 italian police investigation tourist climbed thermae walls

value of tourism

• revenue contributes to conservation and management esp after pandemic

• introduced guided walking tours and daily tourist caps