AP Psychology Unit One Exam Review

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering neural communication, neuroanatomy, brain research methods, consciousness, sleep stages, sensation, and perception from the AP Psychology Unit One exam.

Depressant

A psychoactive drug category, including alcohol, that slows central nervous system activity and impairs coordination.

MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)

A brain imaging technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce detailed images of soft brain tissue.

Sleep Deprivation

A state caused by an insufficient amount of sleep, resulting in concentration difficulties, irritability, and increased susceptibility to illness.

Oleogustus

A proposed basic taste term that describes the distinct sensory experience of tasting fat.

Myelin Sheath

A fatty insulating layer surrounding an axon that helps neural impulses travel faster.

Inattentional Blindness

The failure to see a visible object because one's attention is focused elsewhere on a different task.

Conduction Hearing Loss

A hearing impairment that occurs when the mechanical structures of the ear fail to conduct sound waves effectively.

Circadian Rhythm

An internal biological clock that regulates bodily rhythms, such as sleepiness and alertness, on a roughly 24-hour cycle.

GABA

A major neurotransmitter that primarily inhibits neural firing and plays a key role in sleep.

Oxytocin

A hormone associated with social bonding and affection, sometimes referred to as the 'cuddle hormone.'

Somnambulism

A sleep disturbance characterized by walking or performing complex behaviors while remaining asleep.

Weber's Law

The principle that two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage or proportion, rather than a constant amount, for the difference to be perceived.

Substance Use Disorder

A condition characterized by continued substance use despite resulting in significant life impairment, relational problems, or physical danger.

Tolerance

The diminishing effect experienced with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger amounts to achieve the same effect.

Broca's Area

A brain area responsible for directing the muscle movements involved in speech; damage impairs the ability to produce spoken words while comprehension remains intact.

Wernicke's Area

A temporal lobe brain region involved in language comprehension; damage impairs understanding of spoken language while speech production remains fluent.

Medulla

The structure located at the base of the brainstem that controls vital autonomic functions, including breathing and heartbeat.

Lateralization

The specialization of certain cognitive and neurological functions within either the left or right cerebral hemisphere.

Consolidation Theory

A dream theory suggesting that dreaming is directly tied to the reactivation and strengthening of memories formed during waking hours.

Nature-Nurture Issue

The longstanding psychological controversy regarding the relative contributions of genetic endowment versus environmental experiences in shaping behavior.

Thalamus

The brain's sensory control center located on top of the brainstem that relays incoming sensory information to the cerebral cortex, with the exception of smell.

Multiple Sclerosis

A neurological disorder wherein the immune system degrades the myelin sheath, impairing signal transmission throughout the nervous system.

Hippocampus

A limbic system structure vital for processing and storing explicit (conscious) memories of facts and events.

Antagonist

A chemical molecule that binds to neurotransmitter receptors and inhibits or blocks a biological response.

Absolute Threshold

The minimum stimulus intensity necessary to detect a specific stimulus at least 50 percent of the time.

Axon

The neuron extension that conducts electrical impulses away from the cell body toward terminal branches and other neurons.

Cerebral Cortex

The intricate outer fabric of neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres that governs advanced information processing, planning, and language.

Reticular Formation

A nerve network running through the brainstem that plays an essential role in controlling arousal and attentiveness.

Serotonin

A key neurotransmitter that modulates emotional states, appetite, arousal, and sleep cycles.

Melatonin

A hormone produced under the influence of darkness that helps synchronize and regulate the sleep-wake cycle.

Phantom Limb Sensation

The perceived sensory experience that an amputated or absent bodily extremity is still attached and functioning.

Hallucinogen

A drug category capable of evoking vivid sensory hallucinations and distorting perceptions of reality.

Deep NREM Sleep

A non-rapid eye movement sleep stage characterized by slow delta brain waves, during which an individual is difficult to awaken.

REM Rebound

The biological tendency for REM sleep durations to increase following periods of REM sleep deprivation.

Withdrawal

The distressing physical and psychological symptoms that emerge when a dependent individual discontinues drug use.

Motor (Efferent) Neurons

Neurons that convey outgoing instructional signals from the central nervous system out to muscles and glands.

Sensory Adaptation

Diminished physiological and psychological sensitivity resulting from constant, unchanging sensory stimulation.

Identical (Monozygotic) Twins

Twins that develop from a single fertilized ovum that splits into two genetically identical organisms.

Threshold

The critical level of depolarization required to trigger an action potential in an excitable neuron.

Sleep Apnea

A sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

The autonomic division that exerts calming effects on the body, slowing heart rate and facilitating digestion.

Myasthenia Gravis

A condition characterized by skeletal muscle weakness caused by disrupted communication between motor nerves and voluntary muscles.

Glial Cells

Non-neuronal cells in the nervous system that nourish, protect, and support neurons without conducting primary nerve impulses.

Dendrites

Branchlike extensions of a neuron that receive chemical messages and propagate electrical signals toward the cell body.

Action Potential

A transient electrical impulse that travels down an axon when a neuron is sufficiently depolarized past threshold.

Neurogenesis

The physiological process underlying the birth and growth of new neurons in the brain.

Stimulant

A class of drugs (e.g., caffeine) that accelerates central nervous system activity, boosting energy and alertness.

Ghrelin

A stomach-secreted hormone that signals hunger to the brain and stimulates appetite.

Contralateral Organization

The anatomical arrangement wherein the left side of the brain receives input from and controls the right side of the body, and vice versa.

Consciousness

An individual's subjective awareness of their internal states and external environmental surroundings.

Agonist

A molecule or drug that binds to a neurotransmitter receptor site and mimics or amplifies its biological effect.

Somatic Nervous System

The division of the peripheral nervous system associated with the voluntary control of skeletal muscles.

Reuptake

The reabsorption of excess neurotransmitters by the presynaptic sending neuron from the synaptic gap.

Opponent-Process Theory

The color vision theory asserting that color perception depends on opposing retinal processes (red-green, blue-yellow, white-black), accounting for negative afterimages.

Somatosensory Cortex

A strip of the parietal lobe that receives and processes tactile, temperature, and body-position sensations from the skin.

Hypothalamus

A core subcortical brain structure that regulates autonomic homeostasis, including hunger, thirst, temperature, and endocrine activity.

EEG (Electroencephalogram)

A recording technique that tracks electrical brain-wave activity across the surface of the scalp using electrodes.

Bottom-Up Processing

Sensory analysis that begins at the entry level of sensory receptors and works up to higher-level cognitive integration.

Synapse (Synaptic Gap)

The tiny physical space separating the terminal button of a sending neuron from the receptor site of a receiving neuron.

Heredity

The biological transmission of genetic characteristics from biological parents to their offspring.

Nightmare

A vivid, frightening dream that occurs during REM sleep and can typically be remembered upon waking.

Sympathetic Nervous System

The autonomic division that accelerates heart rate, dilates pupils, and slows digestion to prepare the body for fight-or-flight emergencies.

Pituitary Gland

The endocrine system's 'master gland' that releases growth hormones and directs the hormone secretion of other endocrine glands.

Fraternal (Dizygotic) Twins

Twins that develop concurrently from separate fertilized eggs, sharing about 50 percent of their genes like standard siblings.

Umami

A savory basic taste sensation triggered by monosodium glutamate and protein-rich substances.

Alpha Waves

Slow, synchronized brain waves recorded on an EEG that indicate an awake but relaxed mental state.

Activation-Synthesis Theory

A neurobiological model stating that dreams result from the cerebral cortex attempting to synthesize and give meaning to random brainstem neural firings.

Top-Down Processing

Information processing guided by higher-level mental constructs, previous experiences, expectations, and context.

Aphasia

A language impairment characterized by a loss of ability to express or comprehend speech, usually resulting from cortical brain damage.

Perception

The psychological process of organizing, recognizing, and interpreting incoming sensory information into meaningful experiences.

Feature Detectors

Specialized visual cortical neurons that fire selectively in response to specific stimulus dimensions such as lines, angles, and movement.

Acetylcholine (ACh)

A vital neurotransmitter that enables muscle contraction and is heavily implicated in cognitive functions like learning and memory.

Interneurons

Neurons located entirely within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally between sensory inputs and motor outputs.

Sleep Spindles

Short bursts of rapid, rhythmic brain activity that occur predominantly during Stage 2 NREM sleep.

Temporal Lobe

The cerebral lobe situated above the ears containing the primary auditory cortex responsible for processing auditory input.

Substance P

A neurotransmitter that mediates the transmission of pain perception signals to the central nervous system.

Adrenaline

An adrenal hormone released during high-stress situations that triggers the autonomic fight-or-flight response.

fMRI (Functional MRI)

A neuroimaging modality that detects metabolic activity and blood flow changes across distinct regions of the brain.

Biological Approach to Psychology

A theoretical perspective focused on explaining psychological behaviors, emotions, and memories through physiological, genetic, and neural mechanisms.

Insomnia

A persistent sleep disorder defined by continuous difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep, or obtaining restorative sleep.

Visual Accommodation

The mechanical process whereby the eye's crystalline lens adjusts its curvature to focus images of near or distant objects onto the retina.

Schwann Cells

Glial cells in the peripheral nervous system that generate the myelin sheath wrapping around peripheral axons.

Corpus Callosum

A dense band of neural axon fibers linking the left and right cerebral hemispheres, facilitating interhemispheric communication.

Inhibitory Neurotransmitter

A chemical messenger that hyperpolarizes a postsynaptic neuron, lowering the probability that it will generate an action potential.

Suprachiasmatic Nucleus

A pair of hypothalamic cell clusters that functions as the master biological clock controlling circadian rhythms.

Auditory Cortex

The specialized area in the temporal lobes that processes sound signals and complex acoustic information.

Endorphins

Naturally produced opiate-like neurochemicals that inhibit pain and generate feelings of well-being, such as a 'runner's high.'

Central Nervous System

The primary control and decision-making system of the body, comprised exclusively of the brain and spinal cord.

Parietal Lobe

The cerebral lobe situated at the upper-rear portion of the head that receives sensory data related to touch, temperature, and body position.

All-or-None Response

The biological rule stating that an axon fires with full strength or not at all once threshold stimulation is achieved.

Cerebellum

The hindbrain structure critical for nonverbal learning, posture, balance, and the coordination of voluntary motor movements.

Hypnagogic Sensations

Fleeting sensory experiences, such as a feeling of falling or weightlessness, occurring during the transition into sleep.

Reflex Arc

A basic neural circuit that facilitates an immediate, involuntary motor response through the spinal cord without brain delay.

Motor Cortex

The cortical region along the rear of the frontal lobe that plans, initiates, and directs voluntary movements of skeletal muscles.