psych 100 midterm

psychology old definition

the science of mental life, both of its phenomena and their conditions eg. emotions, desires, decisions. Pioneered by William James.

modern definition of psychology

the scientific study of behaviour and mind, and the physiological, cognitive, and social processes that give rise to them

scientific study

empirical observations conducted via the scientific method

behaviour

observable actions eg. words, gestures, biological activity

mind

the contents of conscious experience eg. thoughts, emotions, perceptions

empiricism

a philosophical and scientific view that true knowledge can only be derived from sensory experience and observation

mind-body problem

how do our mental experiences eg. immaterial emotions and consciousness relate to our physical bodies? is consciousness primary or secondary? generally, consciousness is treated as something the brain produces, as the patterns in what we perceive are easier to describe if we assume something is producing them

monism

a philosophical theory where all of reality is constructed from one substance.

dualism

pioneered by rene descartes. a philosophical view opposing monism where everything in reality is composed of one of two substances, with consciousness/mind (res cogitans) and the flesh/matter (res extensa) being in different categories.

epiphenomenalism

brain activity produces mind, but the mind cannot influence brain activity.

interactionism

the mind can influence the brain/matter and vice versa.

materialism

a specific wing of monism, where matter is fundamental and the flesh/body are made of the same physical substance as the mind, ergo mind = body

structuralism

pioneered by physiologist William Wundt. wherein consciousness - or other mental phenomena - can be broken down into its most basic constituting elements, like a periodic table. mental states could be dissected via introspection. usually conducted in a laboratory.

introspection

a technique of breaking down conscious experience into their basic elements - eg. sensations - requiring intensive training. sensations are the raw sensory content of consciousness, and all conscious thoughts and perceptions were thought to be combinations of sensations. the problem with this is that is caused low reproducibility.

functionalism

pioneered by physiologist William James and opposed structuralism, stating that psychology should investigate the function or purpose of consciousness over its structure. this view was influenced by Darwin’s view on natural selection, where heritable characteristics that provide a survival or reproductive advantage are more likely to be passed on to subsequent generations, and the typical characteristics of a species must serve some purpose eg. adaptation. usually conducted in the field as people adapted their behaviour to the world around them. although followers of this theory would also break something down to its constituent parts, they would do this not to arrive at how it is constructed, but what its purpose is.

behaviourism

pioneered by John Watson. states that psychology must be purely objective and excludes any subjective data. it is not the science of mental life, but of behaviour. the goal of psychology should be to predict and control behaviour, not explain mental states. as well, differences between human and animal behaviour is quantitative, not qualitative, and all is picked up from the environment.

gestalt psychology

pioneered by max wertheimer. wherein, we perceive wholes, and not the parts from which they are constructed. this also opposed the atomistic view of structuralism eg. phi phenomenon. when we see faces, we see a face, not two eyes, a nose, and a mouth.

psychophysiological model of mind

Based in reductionism, wherein psychological phenomena can be brought back to and explained by their biological basis. Explores how behaviour is related to the central nervous system, and how any form of behaviour can be explained by physiological structures/processes. Experience can modify behaviour by changing the physical and biochemical features underpinning it.

psychodynamic model of mind

a model wherein all behaviour can be explained in terms of drives or other intra-psychological forces. human behaviour arises from inflexible drives and an the attempt to solve conflicts between the individual’s wants and society’s expectations. behaviour reflects an attempt to reduce these negative states of tension, with motivation seizing when needs are fulfilled.

psychoanalysis

developed by Sigmund Freud and remains a branch in clinical psychology, but not so much in mainstream psychotherapy in North America. wherein the unconscious thoughts and feelings causing someone distress are made conscious, thus giving the subject awareness and a heightened ability to deal with their problems

id

one of three psychological agents in Freud’s model of the psyche, referring to the primitive, entirely unconscious portion of the human brain which operates entirely on basic instinctual drives and needs, following the pleasure principle eg. avoid pain, increase pleasure.

superego

one of three psychological agents in Freud’s model of the psyche, referring to our perfect, idealized self - eg. morality, conscience, ideals, aspirations - and internalizing social rules.

ego

one of three psychological agents in Freud’s model of the psyche, referring to the mediator section of our brain that balances out our learned social morals with the pleasure principle.

behaviourist model of mind

a model of psychological thought wherein the overt and observable behaviour constitutes the proper level of analysis. it tries to determine what factors in the environment control behaviour, and as the inner world is not observable, it cannot be analyzed. the basic testing model here is the relation between stimulus and response. the ABC of psychology was coined in this model; Antecedent conditions [those that precede behaviour], the Behavioural response, and the Consequences of the following responses. the assumption is that behaviour is entirely determined by antecedent conditions and no understanding of internal states is necessary. humans and other animals are not good or bad, but simply react to these conditions and can be controlled by controlling these and the consequences to behaviour eg. Pavlov’s dogs

cognitive model of mind

replaced behaviorisms as the most influential model, and assumes that cognitions - eg. thinking, perception, memory - are the principal subject matter of psychology. behaviour can be explained via analysis of information processing.

cognitive revolution

a mid 20th century shift in psychology away from behaviourism re-centring psychology away from only observable characteristics to cognitive internal processes.

humanistic model of mind

a model of psychology studying the whole person and viewing humans as inherently motivated towards growth and self-actualization. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is a physical manifestation of this model.

william james

a professor for anatomy and physiology at harvard, and established the first psychological research facility in 1875. he inspired functionalist theory and wrote “Principles of Psychology,” the textbook defining the original meaning of psychology.

william wundt

exceptionally influential - established his psychological research lab in 1879, and this is often credit as the birthplace of psychology as a scientific discipline. he pioneered structuralism as a view on psychology.

john watson

shifted the focus of psychology away from philosophy towards biology in the early 20th century. he criticized introspectrion as being inaccessible to the investigator and performed research non-human animals. he wrote the ‘behaviourist manifesto’ in 1913.

sigmund freud

a medical doctor who formed the first major movement in clinical psychology, psychoanalysis. his work focused on the unconscious as the main motivator of behaviour. had arguably the strongest influence on current psychological thought in the western world.

rene descartes

the french philosopher who coined the idea of dualism.

nature

wherein genes determine behaviour

nurture

wherein the environment is the main determinant of behaviour

interactionism

certain basic knowledge is innate but can be moderated by experience, which can change how these innate behaviours are expressed

strong nativism

knowledge of the world is mostly innate ie. nature over nurture

strong empiricism

knowledge of the world is learned, and the mind at birth is empty with nothing inherited ie. nurture over nature

gene

the basic unit of heredity

genotype

the complete set of an organim’s genes

phenotype

the observable properties of an organism, and the product of the genotype, environmental factors, and experience

dizygotic twins

two sperm fertilize two eggs which become two zygotes and the resulting fraternal twins share about half of their genes

monozygotic twins

one sperm fertilizes one egg and the zygote splits in two, with the resulting identical twins sharing all of their genes

trait

a distinguishing quality separating an organism from another

heritability

the quality of a characteristic being passed from parent to offspring

twin studies on intelligence

wherein monozygotic twins tended to score very similarly on IQ tests, whether they were raised together or not and dizygotic twins scored less similarly, though still moreso than siblings not raised together. as well, the scores of adopted children correlated stronger with the scores of their biological parents than nonbiological relatives.

epigenetics

how environments can turn gene expression on and off without changing DNA sequences eg. monozygotic twins growing up in different households

chromosomes

tightly packed rolls of DNA coding for human mechanisms.

DNA

strands of polymer carrying genetic instructions

nucleus

the membrane-enclosed core of the eukaryotic cell housing DNA

allele

one or two or more alternative variants of a gene on a chromosome. whereas genes code for a specific trait eg. eye colour, this codes for the specific variation of that trait eg. blue

species

a group of organisms that can successfully and regularly reproduce viable offspring eg. homo sapiens

genus

a rank in the taxonomy grouping closely related species and connecting them to a recent common ancestor eg. homo

homo erectus

discovered fire and hunted in groups, a member of the homo genus and hypothesized to have left Africa and lived in Eurasia for around one million years.

homo neanderthalensis

conducted the first documented burials and used specialized tools, and a member of the homo genus. bred with humans wherein gene flow went both ways and every current non-African shares genes from this admixture.

homo sapiens

scientific term for humans

out of africa hypothesis

argues modern humans originated recently in Africa - specifically in Rift Valley - and replaced archaic populations elsewhere as they branched out. the revised variant of this hypothesis clarifies that there was more than one cradle of civilization in Africa but this complete replacement idea did not happen, and Neanderthal and human genomes mixed.

multiregional hypothesis

proposes that regional continuity with gene flow maintaining one species, where humans simultaneously evolved all around the world. we still have not found transitional phases in fossils across every continent to prove this - only in Africa.

cognitive revolution

started about 300 000 years ago where we experienced a leap in brain capacity to think and innovate eg. cave paintings and culture. as we were born naked and weak, our sword became our capacity for conscious action. friendliness and language were also byproducts of this era, and this paved the way to making our modern society possible.

agricultural revolution

started around 12 000 years ago. formed the concept of domestication and arguably pioneered modern values of ownership, settlement, and rigorous work systems concerning food. nomadic peoples became less common and diet monocultural, leading to nutrition related diseases.

scientific revolution

started about 500 years ago when the scientific method was developed with the aims of understanding and controlling nature.

anthropocene

maybe since 12 000 years ago, maybe since the 1960s, this is a proposed new epoch where outcomes of the agricultural and scientific revolution led to a new era in Earth’s history, characterized by human ability to modify entire ecosystems.

innate human behaviour

the set of inborn abilities we have either present at birth or developed as a child matures.

baby schema/kindchenschema

wherein certain facial characteristics have a high appeal to humans, inducing the perception of cuteness and eliciting caretaking behaviour eg. large eyes, small nose and mouth, round face. we experience this with both animal and human young

piloerection

mammals raise their hair to help with temperature retainment and social signalling, making the subject appear more threatening. humans have retained this feature and it is activated through emotional triggers.

preference for cover

an innate behaviour of humans to use environmental features for protection and shelter eg. children love building forts, in an empty room we occupy seats in corners

innate social behaviours

stretching out hands to signal contact, body contact, petting/grooming etc. are all examples of…

grasping reflex

human newborns are very strong and can support their own weight with this reflex; we see this in primates as they cling to their mother’s fur

laughing

this emerges to express happiness and joy, regardless if a child has ever heard the sound.

natural selection

wherein organisms that have a better chance of surviving and reproducing are selected for

braitenberg vehicles

a thought experiment based on simple vehicles wherein they had a motor and sensor and could react to light in an inhibitory or excitatory manner. they were intended to mirror animalistic behaviour.

ockham’s razor

proposed by William of Ockham and stating that when given several explanations for a phenomenon, the most simple one should be accepted, especially since they are the easiest to falsify or test.

reductionism and its limitations

a perspective of study breaking down something into its simplest parts. one runs into problems with this as it fails to predict emergent behaviour, as complex dynamic systems can be described by linear functions, but can still produce unexpected outcomes. it does not add what cannot be described, and though this is the best available method of study often, complete variants of the practice are rare.

rationalism

argues that observation is unnecessary and even misleading, wherein logic and reason are thought to be the best approach to find correct answers about the nature of the mind. eg. Aristotle thought the brain was the cooling system of the body

inductivism

several observations are used to induce theories, which are used to deduce hypotheses, leading to more observations to arrive at laws eg. observing grass enough to conclude that all grass is green

critical rationalism

theories need to produce hypotheses that can be refuted, and fair tests are designed to produce falsification and not blind confirmation of a theory. theories allow for an infinite number of predictions but if even one is falsified the theory is wrong.

scientific process according to Kuhn

a cycle of scientific revolutions; preparadigm period, where there are contending schools of thought, normal sceicne, where one paradigm reigns, an anomaly, where a problem emerges in the paradigm and it is either solved or shelved, a crisis, when the paradigm loses and contending theories emerge in the form of a new paradigm, and a revolution, where younger scientists adhere to this new school of thought and older scientists do not.

observer effects

ways in which a subject being observed can impact their behaviour and sully an experiment eg. male experimenters changed pain expression in male mice

experimenter bias

when personal predictions impact the bias of others etc.

demand characteristics

participants are not just passive responders and might engage more actively to possibly please the experimenter and act in ways to confirm the assumed hypothesis. the sum of cues of the experimental situation that convey the experimental hypotheses to participants are called…

milgrim experiment

an experiment testing how far people would go to please an authority figure where a person in another room was ‘shocked’ by participants with an increasing voltage.

representativeness

the level of limited diversity of observations, with a bias towards WEIRD people and non-representative conclusions that do not represent the whole of humanity and are arguably non-replicable.

artificiality

the challenges of laboratory research: participants subjected to bizarre tasks they would not encounter in the real world, often the result of a reductionist approach. animal research also faces this problem. a solution is more field studies.

positive correlation

variables more in the same direction eg. more ice cream sales, more shark attacks

negative correlation

variables move in different directions as one increases and one decreases eg. smartphone sales rise, flip phone sales fall

zero correlation

the variables are not predictably related

the Hawthorne effect/reactivity

worker productivity increasing as they are being observed is an example of…

correlation

a statistical measure describing the size and direction of a relationship between two or more variables

correlational studies

explore how variables are naturally related, describing and predicting relationships between them. this form of study cannot detect causal relationships between them. these allow for better predictions but these still need to be tested via experiment

directionality problem

wherein the direction of the relationship between variables can appear ambiguous. causations cannot be determined, therefore it remains unclear whether a positive or negative correlation results from the increase in one or the other measured variable. eg. sleeping less vs stress levels

third variable problem

a basic problem of all correlational studies where the relationship between the two measured correlated variables might be dependent on a third unmeasured vairable eg. risk taking vs texting while driving and driving dangerously

experimenter expectancy effect

two groups of college students were given a rat. one was told their rat was exceptionally smart and well-trained and the other was told theirs was stupid. both were trained to run through mazes, and the rat that had supposedly better genetics performed better

experimental method

a method of detecting cause and effect relationships via experiment that tests causal hypotheses by manipulating and measuring variables. basic components are a hypothesis, prediction, and independent and dependent variable.

hypothesis

explanation of a phenomenon eg. cholesterol higher than 400 leads to heart disease

prediction

forecasts future events that will occur if a phenomenon is true eg. if someone has cholesterol higher than 400, then they have heart disease

cause and effect relationship

a connection where one thing directly effects another

independent variable

manipulated directly by the experimenter eg. type of phone use while driving [texting, calling, scrolling…] these have at least two groups - experimental and control

dependent variable

what is measured eg. reaction to red lights, speeding, rate of accident

ceteris paribus principle

wherein everything in an experiment stays the same, except the independent variable

random assignment

wherein participants in the sample are randomly assigned to the experimental conditions - the levels of the IV - and every participant has the same chance of being assigned to any treatment level. this allows that on average individual differences of participants are comparable between experimental groups.

experimental group

the treatment level. they are exposed to the method being tested and shows whether or not intervention causes a change in the outcome.