BIOLOGY - 2ND QUARTER: EXAM REVIEWER

Organic Compounds

▪ Always contains CARBON

▪ Contain C–H (carbon–hydrogen) bonds

▪ Sugar (C6H12O6), Linoleic Acid (C18H32O2), DNA, Alanine (C3H7NO2)

Inorganic compounds

▪ Usually do NOT contain carbon

▪ Rarely contain C–H bonds

▪ Salt (NaCl),Water (H2O),Muriatic Acid (HCl)

MONOMER

Small molecule that serves as the building block of a polymer

POLYMER

long molecule consisting of similar or identical monomers linked by covalent bonds.

METABOLISM

• the sum of all chemical reactions that

happen inside a living organism to keep

it alive

• Two types: Catabolism & Anabolism

CATABOLISM

▪ Process involves the breakdown of

molecules to release energy (complex

molecules into simpler ones)

▪ biomolecules are broken down to

release energy

▪ Breakdown of polymer into monomer

Example:

▪ Breakdown of food in the stomach for

the nutrients to be absorbed into the

blood vessels

ANABOLISM

▪ process requires and consumes energy

to allow the building processes to

proceed (builds complex molecules

from simpler ones)

▪ In anabolic reactions, our bodies use

simple chemicals and molecules to

synthesize (or build) biomolecules.

CARBOHYDRATES

▪ Most abundant of all organic

compounds and well–known as a

great source of energy

▪ Elements: Carbon (C), Hydrogen

(H), Oxygen (O) with a [1:2:1 ratio]

▪ Monomer: monosaccharides

▪ Polymer: polysaccharides

Examples:

▪ Fruits, bread, vegetables, rice, pasta

MONOSACCHARIDES

▪ Simple sugars with only one sugar

unit

▪ They are identified based on the

number of carbon atoms they are

made up of

▪ Highly soluble in water

▪ Building blocks of complex

sugars (carbohydrates)

• Note: The suffix “-ose” means “sugar”

DISACCHARIDES

▪ Complex sugars made up of two

monosaccharides joined together

through a process called

condensation reaction or

dehydration synthesis

▪ a molecule of water (H2O) is

released when the two

monosaccharides bond

DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS

▪ “condensation reaction”

▪ Water is removed when two

molecules combine to form a larger

molecule

▪ Anabolic reaction (builds up

molecules)

HYDROLYSIS

▪ Reverse of condensation reaction

▪ Adding water to a large molecule to

break it down into smaller molecules

▪ Catabolic reaction (breaks down

molecules)

Maltose

• Glucose + Glucose

  • Found in Malt (germinated barley that has been baked and ground)

Lactose

• glucose + galactose

  • found in milk and used in infrant formulas

Sucrose

• Glucose + Fructose

  • common table sugar; most abundant disaccharide found

POLYSACCHARIDES

▪ Complex sugars made up of chains or branches of monosaccharides formed by condensation reaction

▪ capable of acting as energy storage or structural molecules as parts of cell structures

Examples:

▪ Storage polysaccharides – Starch

and Glycogen

Starch

Main carbohydrate

reserve in plants

Cellulose

– Found in the cell walls

of plants. Also gives fiber.

Glycogen

Main polysaccharide

of the body; Stored in liver

Chitin

structural polysaccharide

in outer coverings of crustaceans,

mushroom s and spider web

Amylose

linear structure;

straight chain

Amylopectin

Branched

structure; More soluble in

water

Amylase

– enzyme that breaks down

starch (amylose) into simpler sugars.

Found in saliva and pancreatic juice.

LIPIDS

▪ Biomolecules containing hydrocarbon chains, which serve as

long-term energy storage, insulation of your body, and makes up the cell membrane.

▪ Water-insoluble (hydrophobic)

▪ Elements: Carbon (C), Hydrogen

(H), Oxygen (O)

▪ Monomer: Glycerol and fatty acids

▪ Polymer: Do NOT include true polymers; not big enough to be considered macromolecules

Examples:

▪ Fats, oils, steroids, phospholipids,

and waxes

Glycerol

▪ It serve as the backbone of lipid

molecules.

▪ It is a three-carbon alcohol with

three hydroxyl (-OH) groups that

acts as a scaffold to which fatty

acids attach

▪ Has a structure of propane

substituted at positions 1, 2 and 3

by hydroxyl groups.

Hydrocarbons

▪ Long chains of carbon and

hydrogen atoms.

▪ Organic compounds; composed of

only carbon and hydrogen

▪ Insoluble in water (hydrophobic)

FATTY ACID

▪ A naturally occurring

monocarboxylic acid

SATURATED FATS

▪ Contains only a single bond in the

fatty acid chain.

▪ Found in animal fats.

▪ Also found in butter, lard, cream,

cheese, and some processed foods

▪ Solid in nature

UNSATURATED FATS

▪ Mostly known as oils; contain

one or more double bonds in

the fatty acid chain.

▪ Normally liquid at room

temperature.

▪ Commonly found in plants such

as olive oil, coconut oil, and corn

oil

STEARIC ACID

▪ No double bonds

▪ Straight chain; solid at room

temperature

▪ Found in animal fats, butter, and

lard

OLEIC ACID

▪ One double bond

▪ Bent chain; liquid at room

temperature

▪ Found in olive and canola oils

LINOLEIC ACID

▪ Two or more double bonds.

▪ More flexible; liquid even when

chilled

▪ Found in corn, sunflower, and fish

oils

STEROIDS

▪ It has four fused carbon rings.

▪ Helps in regulating metabolism,

immune response, reproduction,

and other essential biological

processes.

Cholesterol

▪ A type of steroid found in cell

membranes

▪ When _______ hardens in blood

vessels, it may block blood flow,

causing medical problems.

Atherosclerosis

▪ a disease in which plaque builds

up inside your arteries

▪ caused by cholesterol hardening

in the blood vessels which hamper

or block the flow of blood.

▪ Arteries are blood vessels that carry

oxygen-rich blood to your heart and

other parts of your body.

STEROL

steroid alcohol found in major

organs such as the brain and blood

vessels

High-Density

Lipoprotein (HDL)

▪ the “good cholesterol”

▪ picking up excess cholesterols from tissues to bring them back to the liver

Low-Density

Lipoprotein (LDL)

▪ the “bad cholesterol”

▪ Delivers cholesterol to body cells, but too much can build up in arteries, which can lead to blockages and heart disease.

Testosterone

– develops and

maintains male

Progesterone and Estrogen

control the ovulation cycle

TRIGLYCERIDES

▪ Generally known as fats, they

contain a glycerol attached to three

fatty acids

▪ The body’s most concentrated

source of energy

PHOSPHOLIPID

▪ Makes up the cell or plasma

membrane, essential to the

structure and function of cells.

▪ helps in

maintaining the membrane’s stability

and selective permeability.

WAXES

▪ Esters formed from certain alcohols

and fatty acids

▪ Found in nature, providing

waterproofing and protection for

many organisms

Proteins

- are large, complex molecules that play

many critical roles in the body.

- They do most of the work in cells and

are required for the structure, function,

and regulation of the body’s tissues and

organ

Secondary Protein Structure

structure refers to the

localized, regular folded shapes within a

polypeptide chain, which are stabilized

by hydrogen bonds

Tertiary Protein Structure

structure is the overall

three-dimensional shape of a single

polypeptide chain, formed by the folding

of secondary structures (like alpha-

helices and beta-sheets) and stabilized

by interactions between amino acid side

chains.

Quaternary Protein Structure

Quaternary structure describes the final,

complex 3D arrangement of multiple

folded protein subunits in a multi-subunit

protein complex, held together by

noncovalent bonds

Enzymatic Proteins

- Proteins that act as biological catalyst

Enzymes

control the rate of chemical

reactions by weakening bonds, thus

lowering the amount of activation energy

needed for the reaction

Transport Proteins

- Embedded in the plasma membrane to

serve as channels/carriers for molecules

to enter or exit the cell.

Defense Proteins

An antibody, also known as an

immunoglobulin, is a large, Y-shaped

protein produced mainly by plasma cells

that is used by the immune system to

neutralize pathogens such as bacteria

and viruses.

Structural Proteins

- are proteins that living organisms use

to maintain their shape or structural

integrity.

- Some common structural proteins are

keratin, collagen, elastin actin, and

myosin.

COLLAGEN

- It provides structural support to the

extracellular space of

connective tissues.

- Due to its rigidity and resistance to

stretching, it is the perfect matrix for

skin, tendons, bones, and ligaments.

ELASTIN

rubber band — it can stretch out

(extend) and shrink back (recoil).

- It's a major component of tissues in

your body that require stretchiness, like

your lungs, bladder, large blood vessels

and some ligaments.

KERATIN

- Keratins helps form the tissues of the

hair, nails, and the outer layer of the

skin.

- They are also found on cells in the

lining of organs, glands, and other parts

of the body.

Enzymes

are biological catalysts

responsible for supporting almost all of

the chemical reactions that maintain

animal homeostasis.

Lock and Key Model

• Model

• Emil Fischer (1894)

• Both the enzyme and the substrate

possess specific complementary

geometric shapes that fit exactly into

one another.

Rosalind Franklin

- produced critical images through Xray

diffraction that provided key insights into

DNA’s helical structure.

James Watson and Francis Crick

- received the Nobel Prizein 1962 for the

structure of DNA

Franklin’s vital contribution was largely

overlooked during her lifetime, raising

ongoing debates about scientific ethics,

recognition, and gender bias in science.

Nucleic Acids

Store hereditary information

- Contain information for making all the

body’s proteins

- Two types exist --- DNA & RNA

Nucleotides

are covalently linked together by

phosphodiester bonds

- A phosphate connects the 5’ carbon of

one nucleotide to the 3’ carbon of

another

Therefore, the strand has directionality

- 5’ to 3’

Ribonucleic acids

Encode, decode, and regulate the

expression of genes,

depending on the type of RNA present

Messenger RNA

- serves as a temporary copy of a gene

in the DNA that directs the sequence of

amino acids during protein synthesis.

Transfer RNA

- translates the sequence of amino acids

in a gene to create the correct sequence

of amino acids during protein synthesis.

Ribosomal RNA

- forms the peptide bonds between

amino acids in a polypeptide

ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)

• Needed by plants and animals to

survive.

• The more complex an organism is, the

more ATP it needs.

Exergonic reactions

releases energy e.g. hydrolysis of

ATP: energy is transferred when ATP

breaks down into ADP

Endergonic reactions

require energy e.g. dehydration

synthesis: builds molecules up at the

expense of energy; heat and light

energy are needed for glucose to be

produced during photosynthesis

Autotrophs

produce their own food

for energy

Heterotrophs

– eat other organisms to

get energy

Cellular Respiration

a set of metabolic reactions and

processes that take place in the cells of

organisms to convert chemical energy

from food and oxygen molecules into

usable energy (ATP)

Aerobic

➢ requires oxygen

➢ occurs inside the mitochondria

➢ produces – 36 – 38 ATPs per

glucose molecule

➢ usually done by eukaryotes

ONLY.

Anaerobic

➢ does not require oxygen

➢ occurs in the cytoplasm

➢ produces 2 ATPS per glucose

molecule

➢ usually done by eukaryotes

and prokaryotes

Krebs cycle Citric Acid Cycle

• named after Hans Adolf Krebs (1900-

1981)

• cyclical metabolic pathway that occurs

in the mitochondrial matrix

• turns two (2) times for every glucose

molecule because of the 2 Acetyl – CoA

FERMENTATION

An anaerobic type of cellular respiration

produces a limited amount of ATP in

the absence of oxygen.