Study Guide Exam 2: Sensation, Perception, Learning, Memory, and Intelligence

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering key concepts in Sensation and Perception, Learning, Memory, and Intelligence from Exam 2 study notes.

Sensation

The process when one or more of the sensory organs (eyes, nose, tongue, skin, ears) detect physical stimuli.

Perception

The process in the brain of interpreting, processing, and organizing the sensations that the sensory organs receive.

Transduction

The stage in sensation and perception where sensory organs convert sensations into electrical signals that are sent to the brain.

Absolute Threshold

The absolute minimum amount of physical stimulation a sensory organ can detect, such as sensing a candle from $3\,\text{miles}$ away on a clear night.

Difference Threshold

The absolute minimum change in a stimulus required for someone to notice a difference, such as distinguishing a $5\,\text{lb}$ weight from a $5.5\,\text{lb}$ weight.

Just-Noticeable Difference (Weber's Law)

The principle stating that the difference threshold is based on the proportion of change rather than the amount of change itself.

Sensory Adaptation

The dulling of stimuli by sensory organs after being exposed to the stimuli for an extended period, such as being unable to smell one's own lungs.

Rods

Photoreceptors specialized for seeing in the dark and distinguishing shapes and brightness.

Cones

Photoreceptors specialized for seeing in bright conditions, color perception, and fine detail.

Blind Spot

The area on the retina where there are no rods or cones because the optic nerve occupies that space.

Trichromatic Theory

A color vision theory based on three types of cones: S cones sensitive to short wavelengths (blue), M cones sensitive to medium wavelengths (green), and L cones sensitive to long wavelengths (red).

Opponent-Process Theory

A visual theory that explains visual after-images, which the trichromatic theory cannot account for.

Gestalt Psychology

The study of how different people perceive the same stimulus, or how an individual's perception of the same stimulus can change over time.

Figure-Ground Organization

A perceptual process where the brain automatically identifies a figure in a visual stimulus and separates it from the background (ground).

Illusory Contours

The perception of boundaries or edges on an object where no physical edges actually exist.

Bottom-Up Processing

Perceptual processing that begins with external stimuli and sensory input from the physical world.

Top-Down Processing

Perceptual processing that uses prior knowledge, expectations, and past experiences to interpret sensory stimuli.

Perceptual Set

A predisposition or tendency to respond to certain stimuli in a specific way, driven by top-down processing.

Binocular Disparity

A depth cue created by the difference between the images sensed by each individual eye.

Motion Aftereffects

A visual illusion where staring at a moving stimulus for a period of time causes stationary objects viewed afterward to appear to move in that direction.

Stroboscopic Motion

The illusion of movement created by rapidly presenting slightly different still pictures, as seen in stop-motion animation.

Object Constancy

The ability to recognize that an object remains the same regardless of changes in angle, size, shape, light, or color.

Temporal Coding

An auditory encoding mechanism used for low-frequency sounds that enables the perception of lower pitches.

Place Coding

An auditory encoding mechanism used for high-frequency sounds that enables the perception of higher pitches.

Vestibular Sense

The sensory system located in the inner ear that maintains balance and spatial orientation.

Gustation

The physiological sense of taste, experienced via receptors located on taste buds or papillae.

Supertasters

Individuals who possess a higher density of papillae, making their taste experiences significantly more intense.

Olfactory

The sensory system responsible for the sense of smell, processed in the primary olfactory cortex and linked to the amygdala.

Fast Pain Receptors

Myelinated nerve fibers that receive oxygen and transmit sharp, immediate, short-duration pain signals.

Slow Pain Receptors

Unmyelinated nerve fibers that receive little oxygen and transmit dull, aching, long-duration pain signals.

Learning

An enduring change in behavior resulting from experience.

Behaviorism

The study of how environmental stimuli shape and alter an individual's observable behaviors.

Habituation

A non-associative learning process where prolonged exposure to a stimulus leads to a decrease in behavioral response.

Sensitization

A non-associative learning process where repeated or long exposure to a stimulus causes an increase or heightened behavioral response.

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers an unlearned, reflexive response.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A previously neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, elicits a conditioned response.

Extinction

The halting or fading of a conditioned response when a conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus.

Spontaneous Recovery

The reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response in a weakened state after a period of non-exposure.

Stimulus Generalization

The occurrence of a conditioned response when presented with stimuli that are similar to the original conditioned stimulus.

Stimulus Discrimination

The ability to differentiate between two similar stimuli when only one is consistently paired with the unconditioned stimulus.

Law of Effect

Edward Thorndike's principle stating that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, whereas behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.

Positive Reinforcement

The addition of a desirable stimulus following a behavior, which increases the likelihood of that behavior occurring again.

Negative Reinforcement

The removal or subtraction of an unpleasant stimulus following a behavior, which increases the likelihood of that behavior occurring again.

Positive Punishment

The presentation of an unpleasant stimulus following an action, which decreases the likelihood of that behavior being repeated.

Negative Punishment

The removal of a desirable stimulus following an action, which decreases the likelihood of that behavior being repeated.

Partial Reinforcement Extinction Effect

The phenomenon whereby behaviors reinforced on an intermittent schedule take significantly longer to extinguish than those reinforced continuously.

Observational Learning

The acquisition or alteration of a behavior as a result of watching another individual engage in that behavior.

Modeling

The direct imitation of observed behaviors performed by others.

Vicarious Conditioning

Learning whether to perform a behavior based on observing the positive or negative consequences experienced by someone else performing it.

Chunking

The cognitive process of grouping individual pieces of short-term memory into meaningful, organized units.

Maintenance Rehearsal

An auditory processing technique involving the repeated recitation of information to maintain it in short-term memory or transfer it to long-term memory.

Elaborative Rehearsal

A semantic processing technique where new information is actively linked and integrated with previously encoded memories.

Episodic Memory

A subdivision of explicit memory consisting of personally experienced events and autobiographical episodes.

Semantic Memory

A subdivision of explicit memory consisting of general world knowledge, concepts, and factual information.

Procedural Memory

A category of implicit memory involving automatic motor and cognitive skills learned through repetition, such as riding a bike.

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

A persistent, activity-dependent strengthening of synaptic connections that enhances the efficiency of signal transmission between neurons.

Consolidation

The neurological process, driven by encoding and rehearsal, by which temporary memory representations are stabilized into long-term storage.

Retrograde Amnesia

A memory disorder characterized by an inability to retrieve memories formed prior to an injury or trauma, while the capacity to form new memories remains intact.

Anterograde Amnesia

A memory disorder characterized by the inability to deeply encode and form new lasting long-term memories following trauma.

Retroactive Interference

Forgetting that occurs when newly learned information impairs the ability to retrieve previously learned material.

Proactive Interference

Forgetting that occurs when older, previously stored memories disrupt the retrieval of newly acquired information.

Source Amnesia

A form of misattribution where a person accurately remembers information but forgets the context or origin of how it was acquired.

Cryptoamnesia

A memory error in which a person mistakenly believes an idea is their own original thought when they are actually recalling an existing memory.

Analogical Representations

Mental representations that maintain physical or spatial characteristics of the objects or concepts they depict, such as maps or clocks.

Symbolic Representations

Abstract mental representations, such as words or symbols, that represent concepts without sharing physical properties with them.

Prototype Model

A categorization method where objects are classified based on their resemblance to a single, ideal representative exemplar of that concept.

Heuristic

A mental shortcut or rule of thumb used to make decisions and solve problems quickly.

Divergent Thinking

A creative cognitive process aimed at generating multiple unique solutions to a single open-ended problem.

Convergent Thinking

A cognitive process focused on determining the single best or correct solution to a problem.

Triarchic Theory

Robert Sternberg's intelligence theory proposing that human intelligence consists of $3$ distinct forms: analytical, practical, and creative.

Reliability

The standard of consistency in psychometrics, requiring that a test produce the same results when administered repeatedly to the same individual.

Validity

The psychometric standard requiring that a test accurately measures only the specific construct or trait it is designed to evaluate.