Anatomy & Physiology Test Study Guide Flashcards

Comprehensive practice flashcards in question-and-answer style covering foundational concepts in anatomy, chemistry, cells, tissues, and the integumentary system.

How is anatomy defined?

Anatomy is the study of body STRUCTURE - the shape, location, organization, and relationships of body parts.

How is physiology defined?

Physiology is the study of body FUNCTION - how cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems work and interact to maintain life.

How are form (structure) and function related in the human body?

Structure and function are inseparable: the form of a body part helps determine what it can do.

What are the six levels of organization of the human body from simplest to most complex?

Chemical (atoms/molecules) -> cellular -> tissue -> organ -> organ system -> organism.

What is the standard anatomic position?

The body is standing upright, facing forward, head level, feet flat and forward, arms at the sides, with palms facing forward.

What are the key standard body planes and how do they divide the body?

Sagittal divides left and right; Midsagittal divides equal left and right halves; Frontal (coronal) divides anterior and posterior; Transverse (horizontal) divides superior and inferior; Oblique cuts at an angle.

What do the directional terms Superior (cranial) and Inferior (caudal) mean?

Superior (cranial) means toward the head or above; Inferior (caudal) means toward the feet or below.

What do the directional terms Anterior (ventral) and Posterior (dorsal) mean?

Anterior (ventral) means toward the front; Posterior (dorsal) means toward the back.

What do the directional terms Medial and Lateral mean?

Medial means toward the midline; Lateral means away from the midline.

What do the directional terms Proximal and Distal mean?

Proximal means closer to the trunk or point of attachment; Distal means farther from the trunk or point of attachment.

What do the directional terms Superficial and Deep mean?

Superficial means closer to the body surface; Deep means farther from the body surface.

What do the directional terms Ipsilateral and Contralateral mean?

Ipsilateral means on the same side of the body; Contralateral means on opposite sides of the body.

What regions are included in the axial region versus the appendicular region?

The axial region includes the head, neck, and trunk. The appendicular region includes the upper and lower limbs.

What are the major contents of the main internal body cavities?

Cranial: Brain; Vertebral/spinal: Spinal cord; Pleural: Lungs; Mediastinum: Heart, thymus, trachea, esophagus, major vessels; Pericardial: Heart; Abdominal: Most digestive organs, kidneys; Pelvic: Urinary bladder, reproductive organs, rectum.

What are the nine abdominopelvic regions?

Top row: Right hypochondriac, Epigastric, Left hypochondriac; Middle row: Right lumbar, Umbilical, Left lumbar; Bottom row: Right iliac/inguinal, Hypogastric/pubic, Left iliac/inguinal.

What are the components of a homeostatic control system?

A receptor detects a change (stimulus), a control center compares the input to a set point and decides on a response, and an effector carries out the response.

How does negative feedback differ from positive feedback?

Negative feedback reverses or negates the original change to return a variable toward its set point; positive feedback amplifies or enhances the original change (e.g., labor contractions, blood clotting).

What is the difference between a cation and an anion?

A cation is a positively charged ion that has lost electron(s); an anion is a negatively charged ion that has gained electron(s).

How do ionic, covalent, and hydrogen bonds differ?

Ionic bonds form by attraction between oppositely charged ions after electron transfer; covalent bonds form when atoms share electron pairs; hydrogen bonds are weak attractions between a partially positive H and an electronegative atom.

What is the difference between hydrophilic and hydrophobic substances?

Hydrophilic substances are polar or charged and interact well with water; hydrophobic substances are nonpolar and do not mix well with water.

What defines an acid, a base, and the pH scale?

An acid donates $H^+$; a base accepts $H^+$ (or releases $OH^-$). pH measures $H^+$ concentration: $\text{pH} < 7$ is acidic, $\text{pH} = 7$ is neutral, and $\text{pH} > 7$ is basic/alkaline.

How do dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis reactions differ?

Dehydration synthesis builds polymers/larger molecules and produces/removes water; hydrolysis breaks polymers/larger molecules down by adding/using water.

What is the relationship between glucose and glycogen?

Glucose is a single sugar used for immediate cellular energy; glycogen is a highly branched polymer used for short-term energy storage, located primarily in the liver and skeletal muscle.

What are the four structural levels of proteins?

Primary (amino acid sequence joined by peptide bonds), Secondary (local folding: alpha helices/beta sheets via H-bonds), Tertiary (overall 3-D shape of one chain via R-group interactions), Quaternary (assembly of multiple polypeptide subunits).

What is protein denaturation and what factors cause it?

Denaturation is the loss of a protein's 3-D shape and function without breaking its primary chain. It is caused by high temperature, extreme pH, certain chemicals, and heavy metal salts.

How do competitive and noncompetitive enzyme inhibitors differ?

Competitive inhibitors bind directly to the active site and compete with the substrate; noncompetitive inhibitors bind to an allosteric site elsewhere, altering the enzyme's shape and function.

What are the three main components of the cytoskeleton and their functions?

Microfilaments (actin): cell shape, contraction, movement, cytokinesis, microvilli core; Intermediate filaments: rope-like proteins providing mechanical strength; Microtubules (tubulin): organelle transport, spindle fibers, centrioles, cilia, flagella.

What are the functions of Ribosomes, Rough ER, Smooth ER, and Golgi apparatus?

Ribosomes: protein synthesis; Rough ER: synthesizes/folds proteins for secretion/membranes/lysosomes; Smooth ER: lipid synthesis, detox, $Ca^{2+}$ storage; Golgi apparatus: modifies, sorts, and packages proteins/lipids.

What are the functions of Mitochondria, Lysosomes, Peroxisomes, and Centrosomes?

Mitochondria: ATP production via aerobic respiration; Lysosomes: acidic digestive vesicles breaking down macromolecules/pathogens; Peroxisomes: fatty acid breakdown and hydrogen peroxide detoxification; Centrosomes: microtubule-organizing centers forming spindle fibers.

How do simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, primary active transport, and secondary active transport compare?

Simple diffusion: passive, moves directly through bilayer down gradient; Facilitated diffusion: passive, moves down gradient via channel/carrier; Primary active transport: uses ATP to move solutes against gradient; Secondary active transport: indirectly uses an ion gradient generated by an ATP pump.

How do isotonic, hypotonic, and hypertonic solutions affect cell volume?

Isotonic: no net water movement, cell maintains normal volume; Hypotonic: water enters cell, cell swells and may lyse; Hypertonic: water leaves cell, cell shrinks/crenates.

What are the structure and function of tight junctions, desmosomes, and gap junctions?

Tight junctions (claudins/occludins) seal cells to prevent leakage; Desmosomes (cadherins + intermediate filaments) provide strong mechanical cell adhesion; Gap junctions (connexins) form channels allowing direct electrical/chemical communication.

What are the key simple and pseudostratified epithelial types and their typical locations?

Simple squamous: alveoli, capillaries; Simple cuboidal: kidney tubules, small glands; Simple columnar: stomach, intestines; Pseudostratified columnar: trachea and upper respiratory tract.

What are the three mechanisms of exocrine gland secretion?

Merocrine: secretes via exocytosis with cell left intact; Apocrine: apical portion of cell pinches off with secretion; Holocrine: whole cell ruptures to release secretion.

What are the four primary tissue types in the human body?

Epithelial tissue, Connective tissue, Muscle tissue, and Nervous tissue.

What are the functions of osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts?

Osteoblasts build bone by secreting matrix; osteocytes are mature cells in lacunae that maintain matrix; osteoclasts break down and resorb bone.

How do hyaline cartilage, elastic cartilage, and fibrocartilage differ in structure and location?

Hyaline (fine collagen, glassy): articular cartilage, nose, ribs, trachea; Elastic (elastic fibers): external ear, epiglottis; Fibrocartilage (thick collagen bundles): intervertebral discs, pubic symphysis, menisci.

What are the structural and functional differences among skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle?

Skeletal: long cylindrical, striated, multinucleated, voluntary; Cardiac: branched, striated, $1\text{--}2$ nuclei, intercalated discs, involuntary; Smooth: spindle-shaped, non-striated, single nucleus, involuntary.

What are the four types of body membranes?

Cutaneous membrane (skin), Mucous membranes (lines open cavities), Serous membranes (lines closed ventral cavities, secretes fluid), and Synovial membranes (connective tissue only, lines joint cavities).

What are the layers of the epidermis in order from deep to superficial?

Stratum basale, stratum spinosum, stratum granulosum, stratum lucidum (thick skin only), and stratum corneum.

What are the main functions of keratinocytes, melanocytes, dendritic cells, and tactile cells?

Keratinocytes: produce keratin barrier; Melanocytes: produce melanin pigment; Dendritic (Langerhans) cells: immune defense; Tactile (Merkel) cells: light touch sensation.

What do the clinical skin color terms jaundice, cyanosis, pallor, and erythema indicate?

Jaundice: yellowing from bilirubin buildup; Cyanosis: bluish/gray tint from poor oxygenation; Pallor: paleness from reduced blood flow/hemoglobin; Erythema: redness from vasodilation/increased blood flow.

What are the two layers of the dermis and what causes fingerprints?

Papillary layer (superficial areolar CT) and Reticular layer (deeper dense irregular CT). Fingerprints are formed by dermal papillae pushing up epidermal ridges.

What are the four main types of skin exocrine glands?

Eccrine (merocrine) sweat glands (thermoregulation), Apocrine sweat glands (scent/hair follicle associated), Ceruminous glands (earwax), and Mammary glands (milk).

How are 1st-, 2nd-, and 3rd-degree burns characterized by depth and symptoms?

1st-degree: epidermis only; red, dry, painful, no blisters. 2nd-degree: epidermis + part of dermis; blisters, moist, very painful. 3rd-degree: entire epidermis + dermis; charred/white, leathery, reduced sensation centrally.

In which epidermal layers do basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, and melanoma originate?

Basal cell carcinoma originates in the stratum basale; Squamous cell carcinoma originates in keratinocytes of the stratum spinosum; Melanoma originates in melanocytes of the stratum basale.