ANTHROP 1101 — Set 5: Identity Through the Lens of Arch (Weeks 6–7)

[Wk 6–7 · Pt 1 History] The meaning of "race" has shifted over time. It originally referred to groups of people with common ancestry. During the age of exploration and colonization, it came to be used mainly to:
A. Describe members of the same family lineage
B. Describe "others," the peoples Europeans encountered and colonized
C. Classify plant and animal species
D. Identify a person's religious affiliation

B. Describe "others," the peoples Europeans encountered and colonized. The term shifted from shared ancestry to a way of labeling outsiders during colonization.

[Wk 6–7 · Pt 1 History] True or False: Before the modern race concept, cultures had no way of categorizing members and non-members.

False. All cultures categorize members vs. non-members (outsiders), usually ethnocentrically, based on social organization (band, tribe, chiefdom), kinship (lineages, clans), and physical characteristics. None of these were "races."

[Wk 6–7 · Pt 1 History] Some historians interpret the emergence of "white vs. black" races in colonial America as a ______ mechanism to prevent unification.

social control. Early Africans were often treated like indentured servants. Making slavery permanent and race-based kept groups divided.

[Wk 6–7 · Pt 1 History] Linnaeus, the "Father of Taxonomy," contributed to the history of racial classification by:
A. Arguing that each race was a separately created species
B. Linking humans to apes and dividing Homo sapiens into four ranked groups tied to environment
C. Measuring cranial capacity with mustard seed and lead shot
D. Showing that human genetic variation is mostly within populations

B. Linking humans to apes and dividing Homo sapiens into four ranked groups tied to environment. His four groups (African, European, Asian, Native American) were treated as subspecies and ranked.

[Wk 6–7 · Pt 1 History] Which correctly contrasts monogenism and polygenism?
A. Monogenism: all humans share one origin and are one species; polygenism: "races" have separate origins and are different species
B. Monogenism: races are different species; polygenism: all humans are one species
C. Monogenism: genes determine culture; polygenism: culture determines genes
D. Both hold that racial differences are caused only by environment

A. Blumenbach was a monogenist (one species, many varieties). Morton was a polygenist (races = separate species with unchangeable differences).

[Wk 6–7 · Pt 1 History] Which of the following was NOT one of Blumenbach's five "races"?
A. Ethiopian
B. Malayan
C. Caucasoid
D. Australoid

D. Australoid. His five were Ethiopian, Caucasoid, Malayan, Mongolian, and Native American.

[Wk 6–7 · Pt 1 History] True or False: Blumenbach classified human groups by facial structure, skull form, hair texture, and skin color, and he treated these traits as fixed and unaffected by environment.

False. Blumenbach classified by those traits but recognized the role of environment, nutrition, and culture in shaping them.

[Wk 6–7 · Pt 1 History] Craniometry is best defined as:
A. The study of fossil pollen to date sites
B. The scientific study and measurement of the human skull (cranium)
C. Estimating stature from leg-bone length
D. Dating bone by its fluorine content

B. The scientific study and measurement of the human skull. Its stated purpose was to understand the evolution of human populations and human biological diversity, but it was used to rank "races."

[Wk 6–7 · Pt 1 History] Samuel Morton is called the "Father of Scientific Racism" mainly because he:
A. Created the first system of biological taxonomy
B. Argued that all humans share a single origin
C. Used skull measurements to claim "races" were separate species with unchangeable differences, and ranked them
D. Showed that brain size does not equal intelligence

C. As a polygenist, Morton used cranial capacity to rank groups, with Caucasians at the top and Blacks at the bottom.

[Wk 6–7 · Pt 1 History] (Review Quiz Q12) Which of the following is NOT a reason why Morton's research with skulls was faulty?
A. He omitted small Hindu skulls from the sample.
B. He utilized non-human primate skulls in his research.
C. He inconsistently measured cranial volume.
D. He did not account for differences in body size or sex.

B. He utilized non-human primate skulls in his research. Morton's real flaws were biased sampling, inconsistent measurement, and ignoring body size, sex, and age.

[Wk 6–7 · Pt 1 History] Morton's sampling made the Native American average skull size smaller and the Caucasian average larger. What did he do?
A. Left the larger "Eskimo" crania out of his Native American group and the smaller "Hindu" crania out of his Caucasian group
B. Used only female skulls for every group
C. Measured only Caucasian skulls with lead shot
D. Counted each Native American skull twice

A. This was Problem 1 (sampling): selective exclusion of skulls that didn't fit his expected ranking.

[Wk 6–7 · Pt 1 History] Why did Morton's switch between mustard seed and lead shot matter?
A. Mustard seed packs more tightly, so it was more accurate
B. Lead shot packs more consistently and is more accurate; mustard seed measurements were least accurate for African American skulls
C. Lead shot shrinks the skull's internal volume
D. It made no difference to his results

B. This was Problem 2 (measurement). Inconsistent filling material let his expectations skew cranial capacity.

[Wk 6–7 · Pt 1 History] True or False: Modern MRI studies show a strong positive correlation between brain volume and IQ, supporting Morton's ranking.

False. MRI studies show only low positive correlations. Brain size does not equal intelligence (Einstein's brain was below average size).

[Wk 6–7 · Pt 1 History] Which best summarizes Gould's critique of Morton's skull research?
A. Morton's sample was too small, but his methods and conclusions were sound
B. Morton's preconceived assumptions led to shoddy methods, selective inclusion/exclusion of skulls (skewed data), and failure to account for sex, age, stature, and malnutrition
C. Morton measured accurately but published in the wrong journal
D. Morton's skulls were later shown to be forgeries

B. Gould argued that Morton's bias shaped every step: sampling, measurement, and analysis.

[Wk 6–7 · Pt 1 History] (Review Quiz Q13) The idea that genetic differences cause cultural differences is called:
A. evolutionary theory
B. biological determinism
C. cultural universals
D. cultural construction

B. Biological determinism. It explains culture and behavior as products of biology.

[Wk 6–7 · Pt 1 History] Gould wrote when genetic determinism was being popularized. A claim that differences in wealth between groups are caused entirely by inherited genes, ignoring nutrition, education, and discrimination, is an example of:
A. Holism
B. Cultural relativism
C. Reductionistic genetic determinism, an extreme form of biological determinism
D. Monogenism

C. It reduces complex social outcomes to genes alone. This is the opposite of anthropology's holistic approach.

[Wk 6–7 · Pt 1 History] Morton's "findings" provided "scientific" support for racial hierarchy (white superiority). This was used to justify all of the following EXCEPT:
A. Slavery and segregation
B. Colonialism, including loss of political/cultural autonomy, ethnocide, and genocide
C. Eugenics
D. Repatriation of human remains to descendant communities

D. Repatriation of human remains to descendant communities. Repatriation is a modern ethical correction, not something his research justified.

[Wk 6–7 · Pt 1 History] Morton's collection of roughly 1,000 skulls was gathered through "donations" without consent of the dead or their communities, and parts of it have since been repatriated. This connects most directly to which Week 5 ethics law?
A. NAGPRA (1990)
B. Antiquities Act of 1906
C. National Historic Preservation Act (1966)
D. Archaeological Resources Protection Act (1979)

A. NAGPRA (1990). It requires the return of Native American human remains and sacred objects to descendant communities.

[Wk 6–7 · Pt 2 Science] Race and ethnicity are both ______: ideas that have been created and accepted by people in a society.

social constructs. Like money or countries, they exist because people agree they do.

[Wk 6–7 · Pt 2 Science] Which is the lecture's working definition of race?
A. An arbitrary classification of modern humans based on physical characteristics such as skin color, eye shape, and facial form
B. A social group sharing a common and distinctive culture, religion, or language
C. A subspecies with exclusive gene variants
D. A group defined by chromosomal sex

A. The U.S. Census instead uses race to mean a person's self-identification with one or more social groups.

[Wk 6–7 · Pt 2 Science] For "race" to be a valid biological category, a population would need to meet certain criteria. Which is NOT one of them?
A. An endogamous population that lacks genetic variation
B. Geographic boundaries that correspond to distinct sets of biological attributes
C. Genetic variance that differs from other populations of the same species
D. Members who self-identify with a shared social group

D. Self-identification is the Census (social) definition. Human populations don't meet the biological criteria.

[Wk 6–7 · Pt 2 Science] Scientists cannot agree how many differences it takes to make a race, or which genes matter most for defining one. This illustrates which reason race is scientifically inappropriate?
A. Arbitrary
B. Exclusivity
C. Variation
D. Endogamy

A. Arbitrary. The other two reasons are exclusivity (no exclusive gene variants) and variation (most differences are among individuals within a population).

[Wk 6–7 · Pt 2 Science] True or False: Each "race" possesses certain gene variants found only in that group.

False. This is the exclusivity problem: "races" lack exclusive possession of any particular variant of any gene.

[Wk 6–7 · Pt 2 Science] Diagrams of African, East Asian, and European ancestry groups show their allele sets as almost completely overlapping circles. This means:
A. The groups are genetically distinct races
B. The groups are genetically alike because they share the same sets of within-group differences; differences among populations are much less than differences among individuals
C. Only African populations carry genetic variation
D. Each group has its own unique set of alleles

B. Any two humans differ by only about 0.1% of their DNA, and most of that variation is within populations.

[Wk 6–7 · Pt 2 Science] African populations have the greatest human genetic diversity, and populations farther from Africa tend to have less. The best explanation is:
A. Natural selection removed variation outside Africa
B. Modern humans originated in Africa; migrating groups carried only a subset of alleles out, and humans also went through a population bottleneck
C. Gene flow only occurs within Africa
D. Non-African populations have higher mutation rates

B. This is also why chimpanzees have more mtDNA variation than all humans worldwide. Humans are a young species with low overall diversity.

[Wk 6–7 · Pt 2 Science] Why is ethnicity considered a more appropriate concept than race?
A. It is biologically fixed and measurable from the skeleton
B. It is based on shared culture, ancestry, language, or religion, and on self-identification and recognition by others, rather than arbitrary biological categories
C. It is determined by chromosomes
D. It was defined by craniometry

B. Ethnicity reflects how people actually group themselves culturally, without false biological claims.

[Wk 6–7 · Pt 2 Science] Ethnicity is revealed when people ______ a certain ethnic identity and are defined by others as having that identity.

claim. Ethnicity depends on both self-identification and recognition by others.

[Wk 6–7 · Pt 2 Science] All of the following are ethnic boundary markers EXCEPT:
A. Language, religion, and dress
B. Physical characteristics
C. Shared historical processes
D. Chromosomal sex (XX or XY)

D. Chromosomal sex (XX or XY). Ethnic boundary markers are features groups use to signal membership and set themselves apart.

[Wk 6–7 · Pt 2 Science] Which best describes the difference between sex and gender?
A. Sex is cultural and variable; gender is fixed by chromosomes
B. Sex refers to biological traits (chromosomes, hormones, sex organs) that fall on a spectrum; gender is culturally constructed: identity, perception, and roles, responsibilities, and relationships
C. Both are determined entirely by biology
D. They are the same thing

B. Gender is culturally variable and not fixed. It is not determined by chromosomes or body parts.

[Wk 6–7 · Pt 2 Science] Typically, an XY embryo develops testes because the SRY gene on the Y chromosome triggers them. If an XY individual has a mutation affecting SRY, the expected result is:
A. Testes develop normally
B. Ovaries develop instead of testes (as in Swyer syndrome)
C. An extra X chromosome forms
D. Nondisjunction occurs

B. Without a working SRY, the gonads develop as ovaries. This is one example of a difference in sexual development (DSD).

[Wk 6–7 · Pt 2 Science] True or False: Intersex refers to a single condition that is always identified at birth.

False. Intersex is a general term covering a variety of conditions (a socially constructed category reflecting biological variation). It may present at birth, puberty, or adulthood.

[Wk 6–7 · Pt 2 Science] According to lecture, gender is NOT:
A. Culturally constructed
B. A personal identity
C. Determined by chromosomes
D. Culturally variable and not fixed

C. Determined by chromosomes. Gender is a spectrum and a range of expression; it is separate from chromosomes, body parts, and sexual orientation.

[Wk 6–7 · Pt 2 Science] A system of thoughts and values that legitimizes gender roles, status, and customary behavior is called ______.

gender ideology. For example, cultural messages about how women and men "should" act.

[Wk 6–7 · Pt 3 Archaeology] A biological profile estimates age, ancestry/population affinity, sex, stature, and pathologies from skeletal remains. Which pairing of estimate and main skeletal area is correct?
A. Sex: pelvis; stature: leg-bone length; age: teeth and bone density; ancestry: skull
B. Sex: skull only; stature: teeth; age: pelvis; ancestry: leg bones
C. Sex: leg bones; stature: skull; age: pelvis; ancestry: teeth
D. All five are estimated from the skull alone

A. Profiles combine measurements (e.g., FORDISC software). They must be applied cautiously to archaeological populations.

[Wk 6–7 · Pt 3 Archaeology] All of the following shape the growth, development, and remodeling of a skeleton EXCEPT:
A. Forces of evolution (gene flow, genetic drift, mutation, natural selection)
B. Behavior and culture
C. Nutrition and stress/trauma
D. The racial category a person is assigned on a census

D. The racial category a person is assigned on a census. A social label doesn't shape bone; evolution, behavior, culture, nutrition, and stress do.

[Wk 6–7 · Pt 3 Archaeology] A skeleton has incompletely developed teeth, unfused growth plates, and open cranial sutures. It should be classified as:
A. Subadult
B. Adult
C. Unable to estimate age
D. Elderly adult

A. Subadult. Adults are aged by fusion of the clavicle and sacrum, pubic symphysis changes, and cranial suture closure.

[Wk 6–7 · Pt 3 Archaeology] A pelvis has a wide, U-shaped subpubic angle, a circular/elliptical pelvic inlet, and a wide greater sciatic notch. It most likely belongs to:
A. A male
B. A female
C. A subadult of unknown sex
D. Cannot be determined from the pelvis

B. A female. The pelvis is sexually dimorphic; males typically have a narrow V-shaped subpubic angle, heart-shaped inlet, and narrow sciatic notch.

[Wk 6–7 · Pt 3 Archaeology] Both ancestry estimation and "sexing" skeletal remains rely on a combination of ______ and ______ analyses.

morphological and metric. Morphological = shape/traits observed; metric = measurements. Ancestry uses skull & teeth; sex uses skull, pelvis & other postcranial bones.

[Wk 6–7 · Pt 3 Archaeology] Which stature-estimation method is most accurate, and when can it be used?
A. Complete skeleton (anatomical) method, if all bones are present with minimal damage
B. Mathematical method, using any single bone fragment
C. Skull method, using cranial capacity
D. Pelvis method, using the subpubic angle

A. When the skeleton is incomplete, the mathematical method uses complete limb bones measured on an osteometric board.

[Wk 6–7 · Pt 3 Archaeology] True or False: Processual archaeology treated individuals as active agents of change, which made it well suited to studying gender.

False. Processualism treated individuals as passive instruments, not active agents of change, and carried a Western bias in gender ideologies, roles, and stereotypes.

[Wk 6–7 · Pt 3 Archaeology] Post-processualism argued archaeologists must consider the ______. Otherwise, past people become "faceless blobs" and gender in those societies can't be understood.

individual. This shift made gender a researchable topic in archaeology.

[Wk 6–7 · Pt 3 Archaeology] Which correctly contrasts the 1st and 2nd waves of feminism in anthropology?
A. 1st: women as anthropologists and as a focus of study (marriage, kinship, family); 2nd: challenged androcentrism, questioned patriarchy and women's subordination, and separated sex from gender
B. 1st: argued the scientific method itself is androcentric; 2nd: studied kinship
C. 1st: rejected all study of women; 2nd: focused only on skeletal sex estimation
D. Both waves focused only on marriage and family

A. The 2nd wave grew from anti-colonial and anti-imperialist shifts and the rise of postmodernism.

[Wk 6–7 · Pt 3 Archaeology] An archaeologist assumes all spear points belonged to men and all grinding stones to women, and treats hunting as more important than plant gathering. This illustrates:
A. Androcentrism: projecting one's own culture's gender roles onto others, gendering artifacts, and giving activities different values
B. Post-processualism
C. Cultural relativism
D. Holism

A. Androcentrism also includes basing roles on biological determinants and treating male perspectives as representative of the whole culture.

[Wk 6–7 · Pt 3 Archaeology] True or False: The feminist post-modern critique argued that the scientific method itself might be androcentric, generating bias rather than just allowing it in.

True. The critique held that existing research practices failed to expose and correct sexist assumptions.

[Wk 6–7 · Pt 3 Archaeology] A burial contains a skeleton buried with weapons. What is the best way to study gender in this case?
A. Assume the person was male because of the weapons
B. Combine skeletal sex estimation and mortuary evidence with other lines of evidence (ethnography, documents, iconography) rather than assuming grave goods = gender
C. Ignore the grave goods entirely
D. Use cranial capacity to determine gender

B. Grave goods need caution. Gender is studied through ethnography/ethnoarchaeology/experiments, skeletal & mortuary studies (sexual dimorphism, stress, disease/malnutrition), documents, and iconography.

[Wk 6–7 · Pt 3 Archaeology] Feminist critics argued archaeology promoted a particular gender ______: a set of culture-specific beliefs about masculine and feminine, the capabilities of men and women, their power relations, and their appropriate roles.

mythology. Archaeologists had projected their own culture's gender beliefs onto the pa