R-O relationships

instrumental learning

synonymous to R-O learning

learning in which the probability of a given behavior is altered by its consequences

operant learning

subset of instrumental learning

instrumental learning in which the organism specifically learns to manipulate its environment to achieve a desired outcome

discrete-trial method

a form of instrumental learning wherein an organism may only perform a behavior to earn a response only at specific times

ex: iclicker quizzes

free-operant method

a form of instrumental learning wherein an organism may perform a behavior to earn a response at any time

ex: checking social media

reward learning

behavior leads to an appetitive outcome

also called positive reinforcement

punishment learning

behavior leads to an aversive outcome

also called positive punishment

omission learning

behavior removes an appetitive outcome

also called negative punishment

escape / avoidance learning

behavior removes an aversive outcome

also called negative reinforcement

continuous reinforcement

stable 1:1 ratio of behavior to reinforcer

behavior always produces reinforcer

fixed ratio

stable X:1 ratio of behavior to reinforcer

x number of responses always produces the reinforcer

variable ratio

average X:1 ratio of behavior to reinforcer

the number of responses needed to produce the reinforcer will vary, but average out to x

fixed interval

stable interval separates rewardable behaviors

behavior will only produce reinforcer after a constant amount of time has passed

variable interval

average interval separates rewardable behaviors

behavior will only produce reinforcer after a variable amount of time has passed

learned helplessness

idea that unavoidable aversive events impair performance on future avoidable aversive events

causes motivational and associative deficit

contributes to common psychiatric disorders, including anxiety, depression, and PTSD

behavioral therapy

method of combating learned helplessness

re-establishing a sense of control facilitates future learning

behavioral immunization

method of combating learned helplessness

a pre-established sense of control facilitates future learning

secondary reinforcers

exception to the importance of contiguity

a pavlovian association is formed between a neutral stimulus and a primary reinforcer

ex: gold stars in classrooms

marking stimuli

exception to the importance of contiguity

brief auditory or visual cue distinguishing target response from other behaviors (NOT valued)

ex: shaping activity

feedback functions

how quickly the organism learns to maximize benefit

interval reach asymptote earlier than ratio

concurrent schedules of reinforcement

organism has two response options that each lead to reinforcement, but on different schedules

ex: lever a yields a large pile of food but is on a 10-minute fixed-interval schedule, lever b yields only a single food pellet but is on a 5:1 fixed ratio schedule

matching law

if similar effort is required for response alternatives and if switching from one alternative to the other is easy

then the distribution of responses will depend only on the schedule of reinforcement for each response

thus the relative rate of each response is equal to the relative rate of reinforcement obtained with that response alternative

generalized matching law

takes differences in effort, reinforcer strength, and switching from one response to the other

concurrent-chain schedules

lock the organism’s initial choice in for the remainder of a trial

choice and terminal links

choice link

initial decision wherein participant can select either option

terminal link

trials following initial trial where only selected option is available

drive-reduction theory

reinforcers satisfy biological needs mediated by internal drives

provides a way to derive the internal drives of a species (clark hull)

premack principle

given two responses arranged in an operant conditioning procedure, the more probable response will reinforce the less likely behavior, but the less probable response will not reinforce the more probable behavior

reinforcing events are opportunities to engage in behavior

response deprivation theory

proposed a schedule of reinforcement must deprive the organism of the consequent reinforcer

is not fixated on the time spent performing a response, avoids measurement problems

early view

believed that all learning occurred via common mechanism

modern view

multiple systems underlie different types of memory

striatum

key basal ganglia structure

involved in motivation, reinforcement, and planning movements

receives dopaminergic input from the substantia nigra, 2 key receptors

substantia nigra

key basal ganglia structure

produces dopamine

neurons synapse onto neurons in the striatum

amygdala

key region for habit learning

basolateral nucleus encodes reward magnitude and valence

striatum

key region for the habit system

integrates positive and negative with behavior over multiple trials

orbital frontal cortex (OFC)

allows organism to weigh the relative value of alternative outcomes

value

relative gain both now and in the future

direct pathway

D1 receptors

involved in reward learning and initiating action

indirect pathway

D2 receptors

involved in punishment learning and inhibiting action