Research methods

aim

create a question and turns it into a to determine ...."Do factors such as self-esteem and laxative use predict the likelihood of eating disorders in adolescent females?'

variable

any factor (stimulus, event, quality, trait or characteristic) that can take a range of values and can be measured or manipulated in a scientific investigation.

extraneous Variable

Any variable that is not the independent variable but may affect the results (dependent variable) of the research. These variables should be controlled (kept constant), or at least monitored, in order that they do not threaten the internal validity of the investigation results by becoming a confounding variable.

confounding variable

Variables that have affected the results (dependent variable), apart from the independent variable. A confounding variable may have been an extraneous variable that has not been controlled for, or it can be a type of variable that cannot be controlled for. These variables interfere with the internal validity of the investigation by providing alternative explanations for the investigation results.

Experimental group vs. control group

The experimental group are allocated the independent variable in order to observe its effects.

The control group has not received the independent variable and is used as a standard of comparison

individual participant differences

The difference in personal characteristics and experiences of the individual participants in an experiment. They include things such as age, sex, intelligence, personality, culture, ethnicity etc.

Hypothesis

A hypothesis is a prediction

It is predicted that Year 12 Psychology students (population) who sleep fewer than 6 hours a night (IV)will be more likely to score high (more than 8) o Korner's irritability scale (DV) than those who sleep more than 6 hours per night (IV)

Independent Variable (IV)

The variable for which quantities are manipulated (controlled, selected or changed) by the researcher, and the variable that is assumed to have a direct effect on the dependent variable.
Operationailsed= 1 Vs. 2

dependent variable (DV)

The variable the researcher measures, after selecting the independent variable that is assumed to affect the dependent variable

Operationalised = as measured by...

controlled variable

variable that a researcher holds constant. (environment, time of day, gender, age, standardised procedures). Influence has been managed. are not part of the investigation itself

Placebos

fake treatment, often used as a control condition in experiments to counter participant expectations. Example; sugar tablet

Placebo effet

occurs when a behaviour is caused by an individual’s expectation rather than by a specific procedure administered to elicit that behaviour.

order effects

1. An order effect occurs when performance, as measured by the DV, is influenced by the specific order in which the conditions, treatments or tasks are presented-performing one task affects the performance of the next task.
2. Practice effects are the influence on performance (DV) that arises from practicing a task. Through practice participants may get better at something, become tired or bored.
3. Carry-over effects are the influence that a particular treatment or task has on performance in a subsequent treatment or task that follows it.

experimenter effects

occurs when the unconscious expectations, personal charcteristicharacteristicscs or treatments of the data by the experimenter

controlled experiment

An experimental investigation of the relationship between one or more independent variables and a dependent variable, controlling all other variables. This may include the use of control groups.

non-standardised procedures/instructions

Non-standardised procedures and instructions mean that they are not uniform or the same for all participants.

single-blind procedure

A single-blind procedure is where participants do not know whether they are in an experimental or control group.

This procedure can be used to control the placebo effect.

double-blind procedure

A double-blind procedure is where neither the participants nor the experimenter interacting with the participants know who is in the experimental or control group. \n This procedure can be used to control the experimenter effect.

correlational study

Planned observation and recording of events and behaviours that have not been manipulated or controlled to understand the relationships/associations that exist between variables, to identify which factors may be of greater importance and to make predictions.

between subjects design

participants are allocated to different groups, each exposed to a different condition

independent groups-

matched participants -selection of pairs of participants who are very similar in one or more personal characteristics that can influence the DV, then allocating each member of the pair to different experimental conditions.

within subjects design and counterbalancing

participants are exposed to both the experimental and control condition to avoid participant differences
counter balancing: expose participants to different orders of treatment

Mixed design

has elements of both between subjects and within subjects, with multiple groups and data collected at multiple times.

Classification and identification

Classification is the arrangement of phenomena, objects or events into manageable sets, whereas identification is a process of recognition of phenomena as belonging to particular sets or possibly being part of a new or unique set.

Simulation

Design or evaluation of an artefact, process or system to meet a human need, which may involve technological applications in addition to scientific knowledge and procedures.

Fieldwork

Planned observation and recording of events and behaviours that have not been manipulated or controlled to understand the relationships/associations that exist between variables, to identify which factors may be of greater importance and to make predictions.

Modelling

Involves the collation and analysis of secondary data related to other people’s scientific findings and/or viewpoints in order to answer a question or provide background information to help explain observed events, or as preparation for an investigation to generate primary data.

product, process, system

Design or evaluation of an artefact, process or system to meet a human need, which may involve technological applications in addition to scientific knowledge and procedures.

literature review

Involves the collation and analysis of secondary data related to other people’s scientific findings and/or viewpoints in order to answer a question or provide background information to help explain observed events, or as preparation for an investigation to generate primary data.

standardised procedures/instructions

Standardised procedures are where all participants are exposed to the same environment and procedures, with the only exception being the IV.

WEIRD Sample

samples that are drawn from populations that are White, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic. Ninety-nine percent of all published studies rely on participants recruited from populations that fit those criteria.

Biased sample

selecting individuals or other study units from a population in such a manner that the resulting sample is not representative of the population.

random sampling

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion (putting names into a hat)

stratified sampling

population is divided into groups with a common attribute and a random sample is chosen within each group. same proportions as population

random stratified sampling

participants are chosen at random from each group to ensure equal chance

convenience smapling

collection of data from subjects or objects readily available or easily accessible to the researcher.

experimental group vs. control group

EXPERIMENTAL GROUP is the group receiving the independent variable/ treatment

CONTROL GROUP does not receive any treatment, in order to act as a comparison

self report methods

-Questionnaires
-interviews
-rating scales

questionnaires

Questionnaires are a written self-report technique where participants are given a pre-set number of questions to respond to.Questionnaires can be an effective means of measuring the behaviour, attitudes, preferences, opinions and, intentions of relatively large numbers of subjects more cheaply and quickly than other methods

surveys

A survey gathers data by asking a group of people their thoughts, reactions or opinions to fixed questions

Data

Data is the term we give to any information that \n is collected or used in a scientific investigation

Primary and secondary data

Primary data are data that we collect ourselves \n from a study that we have designed. Secondary \n data are data that have been collected by someone \n else that we use when conducting a literature \n review of the existing knowledge on a research \n topic.

Observational studies

The term **observational research** is used to refer to several different types of non-experimental studies in which behavior is systematically observed and recorded. The goal of observational research is to describe a variable or set of variables.

naturalistic observation

**Naturalistic observation** is an observational method that involves observing people’s behavior in the environment in which it typically occurs. **disguised naturalistic observation.** Ethically, this method is considered to be acceptable if the participants remain anonymous and the behavior occurs in a public setting where people would not normally have an expectation of privacy.

participant observation

In **participant observation**, researchers become active participants in the group or situation they are studying.In **disguised participant observation,** the researchers pretend to be members of the social group they are observing and conceal their true identity as researchers. I

Qualitative vs. Quantitative Data

Qualitative: recorded descriptions (Jane Goodall)
Quantitative: usually numbers (tables & graphs) statistics are usually used to analyze the data

case study

an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

measures of central tendency

mean(adding the numbers and dividing the sum by the number of numbers ),

median(middle value in a list ordered from smallest to largest),

mode(most frequently occurring value on the list)

outliers

Outliers are data points that differ substantially \n from the rest of the collected data.

standard deviation

\n Standard deviation \n (SD) is a measure of variability that describes the \n average deviation (or distance) of a set of scores \n from the mean (that is, the average distance that \n a set of data points are from the mean)

true value

The value, or range of values, that would be found if the quantity could be measured perfectly.

accuracy

The accuracy of a measurement relates to how close it is to the true value of the quantity being measured. Accuracy is not quantifiable; measurement values may be described as more accurate or less accurate.

precision

Refers to how closely a set of measurement values agree with each other. Precision gives no indication of how close the measurements are to the true value and is therefore a separate consideration to accuracy.

repeatability

The closeness of the agreement between the results of successive measurements of the same quantity being measured, carried out under the **same conditions** of measurement. These conditions include the same measurement procedure, the same observer, the same measuring instrument used under the same conditions, the same location, and repetition over a short period of time.

reproducibility

The closeness of the agreement between the results of measurements of the same quantity being measured, carried out under **changed conditions** of measurement. These different conditions include a different method of measurement, different observer, different measuring instrument, different location, different conditions of use, different time and/or different culture(s). Scientific findings can be considered in terms of whether they are replicable or irreplicable, where irreplicable results may lack credibility

Validity (internal + external)

Validity: A measurement is said to be valid if it measures what it is supposed to be measuring, while the validity of a psychological investigation refers to how well the results among the study participants represent true findings among similar individuals outside of a study.

A psychological investigation is said to be __internally valid__ if it investigates what it sets out and/or claims to investigate.

A psychological investigation is said to be __externally valid__ if the results of the research can be applied to similar individuals in a different setting.

reliability

the trustworthiness or consistency of a measure, that is, the degree to which a test or other measurement instrument is free of random error, yielding the same results across multiple applications to the same sample.

Random errors

Affect the *precision* of a measurement and are present in all measurements except for measurements involving counting. Random errors are unpredictable variations in the measurement process and result in a spread of readings. These may be caused by limitations of instruments, environmental factors and slight variations in procedures. The effect of random errors can be reduced by making more or repeated measurements and calculating a new mean, increasing sample size and/or by refining the measurement method or technique.

systematic errors

Affect the *accuracy* of a measurement. Systematic errors cause readings to differ from the true value by a consistent amount or by the same proportion each time a measurement is made, so that all the readings are shifted in one direction from the true value. They may be observational error, imperfect instrument calibration and environmental interference. The accuracy of measurements subject to systematic errors cannot be improved by repeating those measurements. Most systematic errors can be reduced by being familiar with the limitations of instruments and experience with their correct use.

personal errors

\: Include mistakes, miscalculations and observer errors when conducting research.

uncertainty

All scientific efforts are directed towards reducing the degree of uncertainty in the world about observations, relationships and causes. All measurements are subject to uncertainty and may have many potential sources of variation and this uncertainly extends to all inferences and conclusions that depend on uncertain measurements. The uncertainty of the result of a measurement reflects the lack of exact knowledge of the value of the quantity being measure

subjective vs objective data

Subjective- What the patient tells you
Objective- what you detect during exam

Types of graphs

Line graph, bar graph, pie graph

descriptive statistics

procedures for depicting the main aspects of sample data, without necessarily inferring to a larger population. Descriptive statistics usually include the mean, median, and mode to indicate central tendency,

generalisation

***Generalisation*** is the application of the results from a study, to the wider target population

5 ethical concepts

·        Beneficence: The commitment to maximising benefits and minimising the risks and harms involved in taking a particular position or course of action.

·        Integrity: The commitment to searching for knowledge and understanding, and the honest reporting of all sources of information and results, whether favourable or unfavourable, in ways that permit scrutiny and contribute to public knowledge and understanding.

·        Justice: The moral obligation to ensure that there is fair consideration of competing claims; that there is no unfair burden on a particular group from an action; and that there is fair distribution and access to the benefits of an action.

·        Non-maleficence: Involves avoiding the causations of harm; however, as a position or course of action may involve some degree of harm, the concept of non-maleficence implies that the harm resulting from any position or course of action should not be disproportionate to the benefits from any position or course of action.

·        Respect: Involves consideration of the extent to which living things have an intrinsic value and/or instrumental value; giving due regard to the welfare, liberty and autonomy, beliefs, perceptions, customs and cultural heritage of both the individual and the collective; consideration of the capacity of living things to make their own decisions; and when living things have diminished capacity to make their own decisions, ensuring that they are empowered where possible and protected as necessary.

6 ethical guidelines

·        Confidentiality: The privacy, protection and security of a participant’s personal information in terms of personal details and the anonymity of individual results, including the removal of identifying elements.

·        Debriefing: Ensures that, at the end of the experiment, the participant leaves understanding the experimental aim, results and conclusions. Any participant questions are addressed, and support is also provided to ensure there is no lasting harm from their involvement in the study. Debriefing is essential for all studies that involve deception.

·        Informed consent procedures: Ensure participants understand the nature and purpose of the experiment, including potential risks (both physical and psychological), before agreeing to participate in the study. Voluntary written consent should be obtained by the experimenter and if participants are unable to give this consent, then a parent or legal guardian should provide this.

·        Use of deception in research: Is only permissible when participants knowing the true purpose of the experiment may affect their behaviour while participating in the study, and the subsequent validity of the experiment. The use of deception is discouraged in psychological research and used only when necessary.

·        Voluntary participation: Ensures that there is no coercion of or pressure put on the participant to partake in an experiment, and they freely choose to be involved.

·        Withdrawal rights: Involves a participant being able to discontinue their involvement in an experiment at any time during or after the conclusion of an experiment, without penalty. This may include the removal of the participant’s results from the study after the study has been completed.

risk assessments and safety data sheets

se risk assessments and safety data \n sheets to identify and account for risks in \n experiments conducted in a laboratory