Classical Conditioning, Rescorla-Wagner Model, and Instrumental Conditioning

Vocabulary practice flashcards covering classical conditioning (Rescorla-Wagner model, blocking, overshadowing), instrumental conditioning principles (schedules of reinforcement, contingencies, behavioral contrast), theories of reinforcement, extinction effects (PREE), and biological preparedness.

Rescorla-Wagner (1972) Model

A mathematical model of classical conditioning describing the trial-by-trial change in associative strength between a conditioned stimulus (CS) and an unconditioned stimulus (US) based on the degree to which the US is surprising.

Learning Curve (Rescorla-Wagner Model)

A negatively accelerating function where learning occurs rapidly on early trials due to unexpected outcomes, gradually produces smaller increments in associative strength as surprise decreases, and levels off at an asymptote.

Associative Strength ($V$)

In the Rescorla-Wagner model, the parameter representing the current strength of the conditioned association between the CS and the US, reflecting the subject's predictive expectation of what will occur.

Asymptote of Learning ($\lambda$)

In the Rescorla-Wagner model, the parameter representing the maximum possible associative strength supported by the unconditioned stimulus, corresponding to the actual outcome of the US.

Change in Associative Strength ($\Delta V$)

The amount of associative value learned on a single trial, calculated as $\Delta V = k(\lambda - V)$, where $k$ represents CS/US salience and $(\lambda - V)$ represents the degree of surprise.

Updated Associative Value ($V_{\text{current}}$)

The total associative strength at the end of the current trial, computed by adding the increment learned on that trial to the previous associative strength: $V_{\text{current}} = \Delta V + V_{\text{prev}}$.

Rate of Learning ($k$)

The salience parameter in the Rescorla-Wagner model reflecting the salience of the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli ($\text{CS/US}$ salience), which determines how quickly learning proceeds.

US Reduction Model

A model of conditioning, such as the Rescorla-Wagner model, where learning depends on how surprising the unconditioned stimulus is; as the US becomes predictable, its ability to produce learning is gradually reduced until learning stops ($\Delta V = 0$ when $V = \lambda$).

CS Reduction Model

A conditioning model proposing that learning depends on how much predictive information the conditioned stimulus provides, which accounts for the CS preexposure effect because unreinforced preexposure teaches that the CS is uninformative.

Stimulus Selection

The process whereby the nervous system selects certain stimuli for associative learning and processing over others, demonstrating that classical conditioning is not automatic.

Blocking

A stimulus selection phenomenon where pretraining an association between one CS and a US ($\text{CS1} \rightarrow \text{US}$) prevents learning about a second CS when both are presented together ($[\text{CS1} + \text{CS2}] \rightarrow \text{US}$), because $\text{CS1}$ has already acquired all available associative strength ($\lambda$).

Overshadowing

A stimulus selection phenomenon occurring when two CSs of differing salience are paired simultaneously with a US, resulting in the more salient CS acquiring a much stronger association than the less salient CS.

Scapegoating Technique

A clinical application of overshadowing in which an unusually salient, distinct flavor is ingested prior to chemotherapy or nausea-inducing motion, preventing learned aversions from developing to standard dietary foods.

Thorndike's Law of Effect

The behavioral principle stating that responses followed by satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated, whereas responses followed by annoying consequences are less likely to recur.

Three-Term Contingency

B.F. Skinner's operant conditioning framework consisting of an Antecedent ($A$ or $S^D$), a Behavior/Response ($B$ or $R$), and a Consequence ($C$ or $S^R/S^P$), where receipt of the consequence depends on the emission of the behavior.

Discriminative Stimulus ($S^D$)

An antecedent environmental stimulus that signals that a specific response-reinforcer contingency is in effect and that emitting the operant response will produce a reinforcer ($S^D : R \rightarrow S^R$).

Stimulus Delta ($S^\Delta$)

A discriminative stimulus that signals extinction or non-reinforcement, indicating that an emitted operant response will yield no reward ($S^\Delta : R \rightarrow \text{NO Food}$).

Discrete-Trial Procedure

An instrumental conditioning method in which each trial is separated in time, the operant response can only occur once per trial, and the experimenter determines the number and timing of trials.

Free-Operant Procedure

Skinner's instrumental procedure allowing continuous, unconstrained responding over time, enabling the subject to determine the number and rate of responses to establish cause-effect relationships in real time.

Shaping by Successive Approximation

An operant procedure that captures natural behavioral variability by breaking down a target behavior into steps and progressively raising the criterion required for reinforcement until the novel behavior is acquired.

Response Chaining

The linking together of multiple discrete learned behaviors into an ordered sequence, where the completion of each link serves as a discriminative stimulus for the subsequent behavior.

Forward Chaining

A response chaining method where training starts with the first step of the behavioral sequence, adding subsequent steps in chronological order until the entire behavioral chain is mastered.

Backward Chaining

A response chaining method where training starts by reinforcing the final behavior of a sequence, allowing the learner to contact reinforcement earlier and using completed terminal links as secondary reinforcers for earlier steps.

Positive Reinforcement

An operant contingency in which a desirable event or stimulus is presented contingent upon a response, resulting in an increased probability or rate of that behavior.

Negative Reinforcement

An operant contingency in which an undesirable or aversive stimulus is removed contingent upon a response, resulting in an increased probability or rate of that behavior.

Positive Punishment

An operant contingency in which an undesirable or aversive stimulus is presented contingent upon a response, resulting in a decreased probability or rate of that behavior.

Negative Punishment

An operant contingency in which a desirable stimulus or privilege is removed contingent upon a response, resulting in a decreased probability or rate of that behavior.

Adventitious Reinforcement Effect

Skinner's finding that when a non-contingent reinforcer immediately follows an action by chance, the behavior is strengthened, demonstrating the powerful role of temporal contiguity in creating superstitious behavior.

Behavioral Contrast

A change in response rate or speed under a given reinforcement condition resulting from prior experience with or changes in the reward magnitude of an alternative condition.

Positive Behavioral Contrast

An exaggerated increase in responding to a large reward following prior experience with a small reward ($\text{Small} \rightarrow \text{Large}$), producing higher response speeds than experiencing a large reward continuously ($\text{Large} \rightarrow \text{Large}$).

Negative Behavioral Contrast

A marked decrease in responding to a small reward following prior experience with a large reward ($\text{Large} \rightarrow \text{Small}$), producing lower response speeds than experiencing a small reward continuously ($\text{Small} \rightarrow \text{Small}$).

Continuous Reinforcement (CRF)

A schedule of reinforcement in which every occurrence of the target operant response is followed by a reinforcer, producing rapid acquisition but fast extinction.

Intermittent Reinforcement

A schedule of reinforcement in which the target response is reinforced only occasionally or after specific requirements, producing greater persistence against extinction.

Fixed Ratio (FR) Schedule

A reinforcement schedule where a reinforcer is delivered after a fixed number of responses, characterized by a break-and-run pattern with steady responding and a pause following each reward delivery.

Post-Reinforcement Pause (PRP)

A pause or temporary cessation in responding that occurs immediately after the delivery of a reinforcer on fixed ratio schedules, which lengthens as the response requirement increases.

Ratio Strain

The breakdown or reduction in operant responding that occurs when the response requirement of a ratio schedule is increased too rapidly or becomes excessively demanding.

Variable Ratio (VR) Schedule

A reinforcement schedule where a reward is delivered after an unpredictable, average number of responses, generating high, steady rates of responding with no pauses.

Fixed Interval (FI) Schedule

A reinforcement schedule where the first operant response emitted after a fixed, specified period of time has elapsed produces the reinforcer.

FI Scallop

The characteristic response curve seen in Fixed Interval schedules featuring very low responding early in the interval, progressively accelerating into rapid responding near the end as delivery time approaches.

Variable Interval (VI) Schedule

A reinforcement schedule where the first response emitted after a variable, average amount of time produces the reward, resulting in a moderate, steady rate of responding with no pauses.

Cumulative Recorder

An apparatus providing a real-time graphical record of operant behavior, plotting cumulative responses against time to illustrate response rates (slopes) and pause patterns across reinforcement schedules.

Differential Reinforcement of High Rates (DRH)

A schedule reinforcing behavior only when a high number of responses occur within a specified time window, such as requiring 20 completed problems within 10 minutes.

Differential Reinforcement of Low Rates (DRL)

A schedule reinforcing behavior only when responses are emitted at a low rate or spaced out, such as rewarding a student for interrupting fewer times during a class period.

Differential Reinforcement of Other Behavior (DRO)

A schedule that delivers a reinforcer only if a specific target behavior is completely absent throughout a designated time interval, such as rewarding a child for 10 minutes without interrupting.

Mand

In Skinner's operant analysis of verbal behavior, a verbal response (e.g., asking a question or making a request) that is evoked by a motivating condition and reinforced by a characteristic consequence.

Tact

In Skinner's operant analysis of verbal behavior, a verbal response that identifies or names a nonverbal environmental stimulus (such as a child labeling 'A ball') and is maintained by generalized social reinforcement.

Drive Reduction Theory

A motivational theory asserting that reinforcers are stimuli that reduce biological drive states arising from physical needs to restore homeostasis, supported by nutrient loading but challenged by non-nutritive saccharin and sensory rewards.

Consummatory Response Theory

A reinforcement theory proposing that the consummatory behavior itself (such as biting, chewing, or swallowing) is the primary reinforcer, supported by zero-calorie saccharin reinforcing behavior.

Premack Principle

The differential probability principle stating that access to an intrinsically high-probability behavior can serve as an effective reinforcer for performing a low-probability behavior.

Response Deprivation Hypothesis

A reinforcement theory addressing the primary limitation of the Premack Principle by demonstrating that any behavior—even an intrinsically low-probability behavior—can reinforce a high-probability behavior if access to it is restricted below baseline levels.

Behavioral Bliss Point

An organism's preferred, unconstrained allocation of activities across available behavioral alternatives in the absence of reinforcement restrictions.

Extinction Burst

A temporary, abrupt increase in the frequency, rate, or intensity of a target behavior during early extinction trials when reinforcement is first withheld.

Partial Reinforcement Extinction Effect (PREE)

The paradoxical empirical phenomenon where operant behaviors acquired under an intermittent or partial reinforcement schedule persist longer and extinguish more slowly than behaviors acquired under continuous reinforcement.

Discrimination Hypothesis (PREE)

An incorrect explanation of PREE claiming that extinction is slower after partial reinforcement because discriminating non-reinforcement from intermittent reinforcement is harder than from continuous reinforcement; disproved by Jenkins (1962).

Frustration Theory (Amsel)

An operant account of PREE proposing that during partial reinforcement training, the emotional expectancy of non-reward becomes a discriminative stimulus ($S^D$) that prompts continued responding because non-reward expectations were followed by rewards.

Sequential Hypothesis (Capaldi)

A cognitive/memory account of PREE proposing that the active internal memory of non-reward from the immediately preceding trial ($N \rightarrow R$ transitions) functions as a discriminative stimulus ($S^D$) that cues continued responding across all extinction trials.

Instinctive Drift

The tendency documented by Keller and Marian Breland for conditioned operant behavior to break down as an animal's innate, species-specific biological behaviors override the learned response.