BIO 141 Exam 1 - ch 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, :)

1. order

2. evolutionary adaptation

3. energy processing

4. regulation

5. reproduction

6. response to environment

7. growth and development

describe the properties of life [6]

1. molecule

2. organelle

3. cell

4. tissue

5. organs

6. organisms

7. populations

8. communities

9. ecosystems

10. bioshphere

list the levels of biological organization [10]

organization

• new properties emerge at successive levels if biological organization [emergent props, structure and function, the cell is the basic unit]

information

• life processes involve expression and transmission of genetic information [ DNA, genomics ]

energy and matter

• life requires transfer and transformation of energy and matter [ consumer and producers ]

interactions

• important in biological systems [ internal feedback, external detect environment ]

evolution and natural selection

• care the accounts for unity and diversity

describe the 5 unifying themes of biology

• There is a correlation between structure and function 

• Looking and analyzing biological structure gives clues as to what it does and how it works. And looking at the structure of something can give insight to its structure and organization 

• Cell theory says that all organisms are made from cells `

what is the basic unit of structure and function

looks at the isolated components of the living system

define reductionism

they are a result from the arrangement and interaction of parts as complexity increases

explain what emergent properties mean

1. Within cells structures called chromosome contain genetic material in the form of DNA

2. genes encode information for the building of molecules - the genetic information is encoded by DNA

3. Genome is the library of genetic instructions

4. Proteomics is the study of whole sets of proteins and their properties

5. bioinformatics the use of tools to process a large volume of data rapidly

explain how cells get their information to carry out function

1. DNA

2. genes

3. genome

4. proteomics

5. bioinformatics

1. domain bacteria

2. domain archaea

3. domain eukarya

   1. animals, fungi plants

explain how organisms are currently classified [the 3 domains of life]

1. must be testable

2. begins with an observation

3. then a question

4. then test different possibilities [ hypothesis’s ]

describe some of the key characteristics of a hypothesis

• sample number

• controlled experiment

describe what to use to judge the validity of a scientific study

in a controlled experiment an experimental group is compared to a control group

• the control group has no interference done to the thing being tested

variables are the things being changed in an experiement

explain how a controlled experiment is designed to be carried out

in vivo vs in vitro experiments

• in vivo [in life]

  • pros

    • you can see the effect on the whole organism

    • track side effects and see long term impacts

  • cons

    • high cost, long time frame, ethical concern

• in vitro [non living] [ looking at the cellular level ]

  • pros

    • low cost, you see more specific responsive, more tests easily, more control, no animals at risk, quick

  • cons

    • doesn’t look at the whole organism / real human reactions, misses complexity of a human / animal system, findings will need to be re-examined using live subjects

describe the advantages and disadvantages of controlled experiments [vivo and vitro ]

All scientists, faculty, or students, have to undergo training and be certified on how to handle animals correctly

in order to conduct research, an institutional animal care and use committee needs to be created at the institution and provide reviews of all experiments of vertebrates on the campus

explain how animal care is safeguarded in the united states research institutions

eukaryotic has membrane

prokaryotic has no membrane

eukaryotic vs prokaryotic cell

evolution

the scientific explanation for both the unity and diversity of organisms is ………

model organisms

these are known as ……. they have genetic similarities to humans and their genome h

monomers are a single amino acid

polymers are a chain of amino acids / monomers

compare and contrast monomers and polymers

condensation synthesizes a polymer

• it essentially takes one short and one unlinked polymer and brings them together by removing a water molecule which them forms a new longer polymer

hydrolysis is the process of breaking down a polymer

• water is added and the long polymer breaks apart

compare condensation and hydrolysis

1. carbs

   1. sugar

2. protein

   1. amino acid

3. lipids

   1. fatty acid - glycerol

4. nucleic acid

   1. nuecleotides

list the four major classes of macromolecules

1. what are their monomers

1. multiples of CH₂O

   1. glucose, fructose

2. di are two separate monos coming together with glycosidic linkage

   1. lactose, sucrose

distinguish between monosaccharides and disaccharides

a glycosidic linkage takes the OH from two monosaccharides and brings them together to form H20 witch detaches from the molecules, leaving the O to connect the two into a disccaride

identify a glycosidic linkage and describe how it is formed

function is the store energy

1. starch - in plants

   1. store glucose in plant cell walls

2. cellulose - in plants

   1. strengthen plant cell walls

3. glucose - in animals

   1. energy

4. chitin - animals and fungi

   1. animal exoskeletons

describe the structure and functions of polysaccharides

• what are the types [4] and describe each

• they are not true polymers

• they are hydrophobic

explain what distinguishes lipids from other major classes of macromolecules

1. fats

   1. energy storage / source

   2. these are the oils/butter - tricylycerols

2. phospholipids

   1. structure

   2. when 2 FA are attached to glycerol [the double layer sheet] - their tails are hydrophobic

3. steroids

   1. regulation

   2. carbon skeleton consisting of four rings

   3. cholesterol is a type of steroid

describe the unique properties, building blocks molecules, and biological importance of the three important groups of lipids

1. fats

2. phospholipids

3. steroids

saturated fat is solid at room temperature - has all single bonds

unsaturated fat is liquid at room temperature - has a double bond

distinguish between a saturated and unsaturated fat and list some unique emergent properties that are consequences of these structural differences

1. enzyme

1. carry out reaction

2. storage

3. defensive

4. transport

5. hormones

6. receptors

7. contractile and motor

8. structural

describe the characteristics that distinguish proteins from the other major classes of macromolecules and explain the biologically important functions of this group

amino acids are the building blocks of proteins

amino group and a carboxyl group

1. non polar side chain =hydrophobic

2. polar side chains = hydrophilic

3. electrically charged side chains = hydrophilic

what are the building blocks of proteins

describe the basic structure of an amino acid

what are the 3 amino acid groups

a strong covalent bond that joins amino acids together to build proteins

identify peptide bonds and explain how it is formed

1. a primary structure is when DNA determines the sequence of AA, mRNA transcribes

2. folding begins and hydrogen bonds form - could be sigma helix or beta pleated sheet

   1. hydrogen bonds help to begin to stabilize the protein

3. more bonds are forming other than just hydrogen bonds [ionic, hydrophobic, Vander waals, strong covalent] . this is the first stage when the protein can be biologically active

4. when many tertiary structures come together - in other words, when two or more poly peptides chain form one macromolecule

Proteins taking shape

1. define primary structure and describe how it may be deduced in the laboratory

2. in secondary describe the two types of protein structure what is happening

   1. explain the role of hydrogen bonds in maintaining the structure

3. tertiary what is happening

• Quaternary structure results when two or more peptides form one macromolecul

hemoglobin is globular protein consisting of 4 poly peptides - 2 alfpa 2 beta

using hemoglobin as an example, describe quaternary protein structure

• Denaturation is the process in which a protein unravels and loses its native, functional three-dimensional shape, rendering it biologically inactive

• Causes: Denaturation occurs when physical or chemical environmental conditions change, such as extreme shifts in pH, salt concentration, or temperature (e.g., high fevers)

define denaturation and explain how proteins may be denatured

DNA and RNA

DNA holds hereditary information and directs RNA to be a messenger to eventually control protein synthesis

gene expression

[basically just know it goes from DNA - RNA - Protein ]

summarize the functions of nucleic acid

• what is the process called

each has a nitrogenous base, pentose sugar, and or or more phosphate groups

they are linked by a polynucleotide

list the major components of a nucleotide and describe how these monomers are linked to form a nucleic acid

pyridines

• cytosine, thymine, uracil

purine

• adenine and guanine

distinguish between a pyrimidine and purine

• Effect of Substitution: A mutation that substitutes a single amino acid in a protein's primary sequence can alter its higher-level folding, 3D conformation, and overall function14.

• Example: Sickle-cell disease is caused by a single amino acid substitution at position 6 of the beta-globin polypeptide chain, where valine replaces glutamic acid. This minor primary change causes abnormal hemoglobin molecules to aggregate into rigid chains, deforming red blood cells into a sickle shape and severely reducing oxygen delivery

describe what occurs when a mutation occurs and there is a substitution of amino acids

energy storage structure, cell ID

carbohydrate function

carb

which of the 4 major groups is this

it is a small difference in structure but a big difference in function

1. a = for storage and the compound is easier to break

2. b = structural support which is very hard to break

what is the functional difference between a and b glucose

cholesterol

a high level of ………. in the blood may contribute to cardiovascular disease

20

proteins are all constructed from the same set of …… amino acids

polypeptides

……… are unbranched polymers built from amino acids

proteins

a …….. is a biologically function molecule that consists of one or more poly peptides

their three dimensional architecture

what do the specific activities of proteins result from

functional

a ……….. protein is one or mole polypeptides twisted, folded, and coiled into a unique shape

weak interactions would be hydorgen bids, ionic bonds, hydrophobic interactios, vander waals

string would be covalent bonds

Explain how weak interactions and disulfide bridges contribute to tertiary protein structure

RNA has Uracil

DNA has Thymine

• either one doens’t have the other

what is the difference between DNA and RNA in terms of nucleic acid

the study of compounds that contain carbon, regardless or origin

define organic chemistry

Stanley miller’s classic experiment demonstrated the abiotic synthesis of organic compounds

• in this experiment sea water was heated up - the water vapor was shocked by electrodes

explain a possible origin of organic molecules

describe any evidence for this idea

the key is its electron configuration

explain the key to an atoms chemical characteristics

carbon is a very compatible element. it has 4 ve allowing for many connections / combinations with other elements.

1. carbon can form 4 bonds

2. carbon can bond to other carbons resulting in carbon skeletons. car

explain why carbon is able to form such diverse molecules

because it indicates the number of covalent bonds an atom can form

why is the valance shell important

isomer is a compound with the same molecular formula but with different structures and properties

1. structural isomer

   1. have different covalent arrangements of their atoms

2. cis-trans isomers

   1. have the same covalent bonds but differ in their spatial arrangements

3. enantiomers

   1. isomers that are mirror images of each other

define isomer. describe three types of isomers

functional groups are the most commonly involved in chemicals reactions

• testosterone functional sex hormone for men

explain how functional groups add to the distinctive properties of organic molecules

give a specific molecular example

C,H,O,N,S,P

what are the major elements of life

hydroxyl group

forms hydrogen bonds with water

what group and function

-OH

carbonyl group

sugars with ketone groups are called ketoses

what group and function

• C=O

carboxyl group

acts as an acid

what group and function

• -COOH

amino group

acts as a base

what group and function

• -NH2

sulfhydryl group

• two -SH groups react to form a cross link that stabalize a protein structure

what group and function

• -SH

phosphate group

gives a molecule the ability to react with water

what group and function

• -OPO3^2-

methyl group

affects the expression of genes - affect the shape and function sex hormones

what group and function

• -CH₃

properties of chemical elements and compounds result of their atomic structure

why is a biologist interested in the atomic structure of an atom

• atomic number is the number of protons

• mass number is sum of protons and neutrons

• atomic mass is the approximation of total mass

• isotopes is the variation of neutrons within the same element

define atomic number, mass number, and isotopes

an emergent property looks at the whole rather than its individual parts

A single heart muscle cell cannot pump blood. When thousands of heart cells combine to form cardiac tissue and structure a whole heart, the synchronized ability to pump blood emerges

what is an emergent property and give a specific compound example

a half life is the time it takes for the element to reach half its original concentration

it helps to determine dating because it is not affected by temperature, pressure, or other enviormental variables

what is a half life and how to interpret a radioactive isotope decay curve

when energy is absorbed the ve moves outward

when energy is lost the ve moves inward [closer to nucleus]

explain the movement of electrons from one shell orbital to another

inert gasses are stable because they have a full 8 ve in their outer shell.

why are inert elements so stable

covalent

• strong bonds

• share electrons

ionic

• transfer elections

• made from - and positive / metal - nonmetal

hydrogen bond

• hydrogen atom binds to electronegative atom

van der waals

• short positive and negative areas that can bond with other atoms

what is the differences between

• covalent

• ionic

• hydrogen bonds

• van der waals

certains systems act as a lock and key

For example the structures of endorphin and morphine have specific heads that allow them to bind to endorphin receptors

describe, with an example, of how molecular structure affects function

1. cohesion of water molecules

   1. surface tension

      1. cohesion because H bonds allow water molecules to stay close to each other

      2. adhesion due to H bonds sticking to other molecules like cell walls

1. moderation of temperature - due to specific heat

   1. specific heat is the amt of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1g of that surface to change its temperature by 1 degree C

1. floating of ice on water

   1. solid ice is less dense than liquid

1. solvent of life

   1. water is solvent and solute dissolves in it

list the four emergent properties of water and explain how each come about

h plus and OH- are very reactive so they are able to separate from the compound

explain the process of water dissociation

the higher the concentration of H plus means more acidic

more h- is more basic

7 is normal

lower the number the more acidic

higher the number the more basic

explain the PH scale

Each element is unique and different from other elements because of the number of ________________.

protons

When two atoms are equally electronegative, they will interact to form___.

non polar covalent bonds

Ionic bonds occur when________.

an electron is transferred to another atom

Water is able to form hydrogen bonds because _____________________

the bonds that hold together the atoms in a water molecule are polar covalent bonds

Enantiomers  _____________.

are mirror image of one another

Which of the following properties or processes do we associate with living livings?

all

What is biology?

study of life

Which of the following sequences represents the correct order of hierarchy of biological organization from the least to the most complex level?

molecule, cell, organ system, ecosystem

The major difference between a prokaryotic cell and an eukaryotic cell is _____

eukaryotic cells have membrane enclosed organelles

What is the core theme of biology?

evolution and natural selection

Which of the following describes the use of reductionism?

focusing on a specific small issue of a process

What do we call the study of the entire set of proteins expressed by a given cell?

the proteome

When blood glucose level rises, the pancreas releases insulin, and as a result blood glucose levels decrease. When blood glucose level is low, the pancreas secretes glucagon and as a result blood glucose levels rise. Such regulation of blood glucose level is result of 

negative feedback

Humans are in which of the following domains?

1. archea

2. protist

3. eukarya

4. bacteria
   
   

Eukarya

Which of the following is a weak bond?

1. hydrogen

2. covalent

3. ionic

4. nonpolar covalent

hydrogen

Which statement is true of all atoms that are anions?

	a)  The atom has fewer protons than does a neutral atom of the same element
	b)  the atom has more protons than electrons
	c)  The atom has more neutrons than protons
	d)  the atom has more electrons than protons

the atom has more electrons than protons

What determines the cohesiveness of water molecules?

hydrogen bonds

what is the symbol for phosphorus

P