[BIOL220] First Unit Exam Outline A&P 1

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What is anatomy?

The study of body structures and their relationships.

What is physiology?

The study of how body parts function.

What is gross anatomy?

The study of structures visible to the naked eye.

What is microscopic anatomy?

The study of structures that require a microscope to see.

What is histology?

The study of tissues.

What is cytology?

The study of cells.

What are the properties of living things?

Organization, metabolism, responsiveness, movement, development, growth, reproduction, and homeostasis.

What are the levels of organization in the human body?

Chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, and organismal levels.

What is the chemical level?

Atoms and molecules that make up the body.

What is the cellular level?

Cells, the basic structural and functional units of life.

What is the tissue level?

Groups of similar cells working together.

What is the organ level?

Two or more tissue types working together to perform a specific function.

What is the organ system level?

Groups of organs working together to perform major body functions.

What is the organismal level?

The entire human body functioning as one organism.

What are the steps of Endochondral Ossification?

1. Cartilage model forms

2. Bone forms around the shaft

3. Blood vessels enter → bone replaces cartilage

4. Bone forms in the ends (epiphyses)

5. Cartilage remains at joints & growth plates

What are the major organ systems?

Integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, lymphatic/immune, respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive.

What is homeostasis?

The maintenance of a relatively stable internal environment.

Why is homeostasis important?

Cells require stable internal conditions to function properly.

What are the basic parts of a feedback loop?

Stimulus, receptor, control center, effector, and response.

What is a stimulus?

A change in the internal or external environment.

What does a receptor do?

Detects a change or stimulus.

What does the control center do?

Receives information and determines an appropriate response.

What does an effector do?

Carries out the response to the stimulus.

What is negative feedback?

A response that reverses or reduces the original change.

What is an example of negative feedback?

Body temperature regulation or blood glucose regulation.

What is positive feedback?

A response that amplifies or increases the original change.

What is an example of positive feedback?

Labor contractions during childbirth or blood clotting.

How are negative and positive feedback different?

Negative feedback counteracts a change, while positive feedback amplifies a change.

What is structure-function relationship?

The structure of a body part determines or influences what it can do.

What is a gradient?

A difference in a variable between two areas.

What is a chemical gradient?

A difference in the concentration of a substance between two areas.

What is a pressure gradient?

A difference in pressure between two areas.

What is a temperature gradient?

A difference in temperature between two areas.

Why do gradients matter?

They provide a driving force for movement of substances or energy.

What is cell-cell communication?

The process by which cells send, receive, and respond to signals.

What are atoms?

The smallest units of an element that retain its chemical properties.

What is an ion?

An atom or molecule with a net electrical charge.

What is a cation?

A positively charged ion.

What is an anion?

A negatively charged ion.

What is an ionic bond?

The attraction between oppositely charged ions after electrons are transferred.

What is a covalent bond?

A bond in which atoms share electrons.

What is a polar covalent bond?

A covalent bond in which electrons are shared unequally, creating partial charges.

What is a nonpolar covalent bond?

A covalent bond in which electrons are shared relatively equally.

What is a hydrogen bond?

A weak attraction between a partially positive hydrogen and an electronegative atom such as oxygen or nitrogen.

What is a chemical reaction?

A process in which chemical bonds are broken, formed, or rearranged.

What is activation energy?

The minimum energy required to start a chemical reaction.

What is a mixture?

A combination of substances that are physically combined but not chemically bonded.

What is a hydrophilic substance?

A water-loving substance that is usually polar or charged and interacts well with water.

What is a hydrophobic substance?

A water-fearing substance that is usually nonpolar and does not mix well with water.

What does "like dissolves like" mean?

Polar substances tend to dissolve in polar substances, while nonpolar substances tend to dissolve in nonpolar substances.

What is an acid?

A substance that increases hydrogen ion concentration in a solution.

What is a base?

A substance that decreases hydrogen ion concentration or accepts hydrogen ions.

What does pH measure?

The concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution.

What is a carbohydrate?

An organic molecule made mainly of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen that commonly provides energy and structural support.

What are the three major classes of carbohydrates?

Monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.

What is a monosaccharide?

A single sugar unit, such as glucose.

What is a disaccharide?

Two monosaccharides joined together.

What is a polysaccharide?

A long chain of monosaccharides.

What are the major functions of carbohydrates?

Quick energy, energy storage, and structural support.

What is a lipid?

A mostly hydrophobic organic molecule that includes fats, phospholipids, and steroids.

What are the major classes of lipids?

Triglycerides, phospholipids, and steroids.

What is a triglyceride?

A lipid made of glycerol and three fatty acids.

What are the functions of triglycerides?

Long-term energy storage, insulation, and cushioning/protection.

What is a phospholipid?

A lipid with a hydrophilic phosphate-containing head and hydrophobic fatty acid tails.

What is the main function of phospholipids?

They form the basic structure of the plasma membrane.

What is a steroid?

A lipid with four interconnected carbon rings.

What are examples of steroids?

Cholesterol and steroid hormones.

What are the functions of cholesterol?

It helps stabilize cell membranes and serves as a precursor for steroid hormones, bile acids, and vitamin D.

What is a protein?

A macromolecule made of amino acids linked by peptide bonds.

What is an amino acid?

The monomer that makes up proteins.

What are the four levels of protein structure?

Primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary.

What is primary protein structure?

The specific sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide.

What is secondary protein structure?

Local folding into structures such as alpha helices and beta sheets.

What is tertiary protein structure?

The overall three-dimensional shape of one polypeptide chain.

What is quaternary protein structure?

The arrangement of multiple polypeptide chains in one protein.

What are the major functions of proteins?

Enzymatic activity, structure, transport, movement, defense, signaling, and receptors.

What is an enzyme?

A protein that speeds up a chemical reaction by lowering activation energy.

What is a nucleic acid?

A macromolecule made of nucleotide subunits that stores or helps use genetic information.

What is a nucleotide?

The monomer of nucleic acids, consisting of a sugar, phosphate group, and nitrogenous base.

What are the two major nucleic acids?

DNA and RNA.

What is DNA's main function?

Stores hereditary genetic information.

What is RNA's main function?

To help make proteins by using DNA’s instructions & theres 3 main types

mRNA (messenger RNA) → carry instructions from DNA to ribosome

rRNA (ribosomal RNA) → makes up part of the ribosome, where proteins are built

tRNA (transfer RNA) → brings amino acids to the ribosome

What is the structure of DNA?

A double-stranded helix made of nucleotides.

What is the structure of RNA?

Usually a single-stranded chain of nucleotides. + (GUAC) + ribose sugar

What are the nitrogenous bases in DNA?

Adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine.

What are the nitrogenous bases in RNA?

Adenine, uracil, cytosine, and guanine.

What is ATP?

Adenosine triphosphate, the cell's primary immediate energy-transfer molecule.

What are the main molecules of the plasma membrane?

Phospholipids, cholesterol, proteins, and carbohydrates.

What is the fluid mosaic model?

A way to describe structure of cell membrane as a flexible phospholipid bilayer containing various proteins and other molecules.

What is passive transport?

Movement of substances across a membrane without cellular energy, usually down a gradient.

What is simple diffusion?

Movement of substances directly through the lipid bilayer from high to low concentration.

What types of substances use simple diffusion?

Small, nonpolar molecules such as oxygen and carbon dioxide.

What is facilitated diffusion?

Movement down a concentration gradient through membrane proteins without cellular energy.

What types of substances use facilitated diffusion?

Polar molecules and ions that cannot easily cross the lipid bilayer.

What is osmosis?

The diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane.

What is active transport?

Movement of substances using cellular energy, often against a concentration or electrochemical gradient.

What is primary active transport?

Active transport that uses ATP directly to move substances against their gradients.

What is the sodium-potassium pump?

A primary active transport protein that moves 3 Na+ out of the cell and 2 K+ into the cell using ATP.

What is secondary active transport?

Transport that uses the energy stored in an ion gradient created by primary active transport. - doesn’t use ATP directly

What is symport?

Secondary active transport in which two substances move in the same direction.