Psych 2300 Test 3

Information Processing

analogous to computers, memory/thinking (manipulate, monitor, strategize information)

Cognitive Psychology

branch of psychology that explains behavior by examining mental processes

Encoding

getting information into memory

Automaticity

cognitive processing that requires little effort, initially requires attention but automatic with practice

Strategy Construction

discovering new processing procedures

Self-Modification

learn to use what you learned previously to adapt responses to new situation

Attention

focusing mental resources, requires conscious/cognitive awareness/effort (getting information into memory)

Selective Attention

attend to selected stimuli/ignore rest, limits information perceived & processed

Multitasking (Sequential/Simultaneous)

handle more than one task at a time (Sequential - switch back & forth, Simultaneous - overlapping 2+ tasks)

Resource-Limited Tasks

task performance improves when allocate more resources/attention

Data-Limited Tasks

processing depends on quality of data available (if lack information, increasing attention will not help)

Memory

retain information over time (involves getting info, retaining info, & taking info out of storage)

Storage

information being held to eventually be retrieved

Retrieval

reactivating/recalling information from mental “data bank” (automatic or effortful), produce in form similar to way it was encoded

Maintenance Rehearsal

repeat information

Elaborative Rehearsal

link information with known (explain, present, diagrams, examples)

Chunking

type of organization that combines information into useful chunks

Sensory Memory

information recorded by senses, first encounter/very brief

Short-Term Memory

information processed/encoded through rehearsal, temporary (5-20 sec) & must transfer to LTM to retain

Working Memory

holds, updates, & manipulates limited amounts of information to support learning

Central Executive

part of memory that directs & controls activities

Phonological Loop

part of memory that is rehearsal for words/sounds

Visuospatial Sketchpad

part of memory that holds visual/spatial

Episodic Buffer

integrates diverse information from phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, & long-term memory

Long-Term Memory

information stored/retrieved when needed, holds extended time (info into LTM)

Declarative Knowledge

verbal information “knowing that”

Procedural Knowledge

“knowing how”

Self-Regulatory Knowledge

manages learning, knowing when to use procedural or declarative knowledge

Explicit Long-Term Memory

deliberate/conscious recall of LTM

Implicit Long-Term Memory

unconscious recall of LTM, influences without awareness

Semantic Memory

memory for meaning (words, facts, concepts), not tied to particular experiences (propositions, images, concepts, & schemas)

Episodic Memory

memories of “episodes” specifics

Network Theories

store information in related clusters (meanings, pictures), interconnected concepts & relationships

Schema Theories

long-term searches/not exact, retrieved information fit into existing schema

Script

schema for event

Fuzzy Trace Theory

individuals encode two types of memory representations (verbatim - precise details, gist - central idea)

Serial Position

better recall items at beginning & end of list

Encoding Specificity

associations formed when learn/best cues

Cue-Dependent Forgetting

lack of effective retrieval cues

Interference Theory

other information (new or old) gets in the way

Decay Theory

over time “memory trace” to disintegrates (“use it or lose it”)

Mnemonic

techniques for remembering (method of loci, acronyms, keywords, & rhymes)

Acclimation

first stage of expertise (learning), must develop strategies to go beyond this stage

Massed Practice

study extended periods (cramming), fatigue/decrease in motivation, not effective

Metacognition

“knowing about knowing”

Metacognitive Knowledge

monitoring/reflecting current/recent thoughts

Metacognitive Activity

consciously adapt/manage thinking strategies for problem solving/purposeful thinking

Theory of Mind

awareness own mental state separate from others

The Good Information-Processing Model

specific learning strategies, knowing similarities/differences among strategies, & benefits of using them

Learning

relatively permanent change (behavior, knowledge, thinking skills) via practice/experience

Behaviorism

explained by observable experiences not mental processes (behavior)

Mental Processes

thoughts, feelings, motives all experience but cannot be observed by others

Classical Conditioning

associative learning, automatic response to new stimuli (Ivan Pavlov)

Associative Learning

learning two events are connected/associated

Generalization (Classical Conditioning)

responding similarly to similar stimuli

Discrimination (Classical Conditioning)

distinguish between similar stimuli & responding differently

Extinction (Classical Conditioning)

gradual disappearance of learned response when pairing stops

Spontaneous Recovery

after extinction - if conditioned stimulus is re-presented - learner again exhibits conditioned response

Systematic Desensitization

associate relaxation with successive visualizations of increasingly anxiety-producing situations (decreases anxiety)

Operant Conditioning

learn behaviors associated with consequences, reinforce (increase) or punish (decrease)

Antecedent

events/situations precede behavior

Consequence

events/situations that follow behavior

Thorndike’s Law of Effect

basis of operant conditioning, proposes repeat behavior followed by positive consequence & do not repeat if negative/aversive

Reinforcer

consequence strengthens/increases frequency of behavior

Positive Reinforcement

add something after behavior, strengthens behavior, results in something positive/desirable after behavior (getting a hug, receiving a paycheck)

Negative Reinforcement

remove unpleasant/undesirable, likely behaviors will be repeated/learned, results in an increase in behavior (fastening seatbelt to turn off beeping)

Immediate Reinforcer

reinforce right away, best if immediate

Delayed Reinforcer

reinforce later/postponed

Punishment

decreases/weakens behavior

Positive (Presentation) Punishment

present aversive stimulus to stop behavior

Negative (Removal) Punishment

take away pleasant stimulus to stop behavior

Generalization (Operant Conditioning)

same response to similar stimuli

Discrimination (Operant Conditioning)

differentiating stimuli/events

Extinction (Operant Conditioning)

response no longer reinforces - response decreases

Applied Behavior Analysis

use principles of operant conditioning to change behavior

Premack Principle

high frequency behavior - reinforcer for low frequency behavior, disliked must come first & promising later is not effective (David Premack “Grandma’s Rule”)

Prompt/Cue

reminder for behavior (turn light off to signal quiet)

Shaping

reinforce progress - successive approximations lead to desired task, may have to teach individual steps

“Might Makes Right”

punishment does not teach appropriate behaviors, harsh punishment says “might makes right”

Observational Learning

watching & imitating, seeing behavior & consequences

Self-Management

behavioral principles - change own behavior, person provides reinforcement or punishment

Learning Implications

neurological changes are not observed, inferred from behavior changes, & cognitive psychologists focus on internal knowledge

Unconditioned Stimulus

stimulus that automatically/naturally produces a response

Unconditioned Response

response that occurs without intervention

Conditioned Stimulus

stimulus that is previously neutral but conditioning elicits a response

Conditioned Response

response learned to what was once a neutral stimulus

Classical Conditioning Applications

help overcome anxiety-producing situations voluntarily/successfully (comfortable reading corner), help recognize similarities/differences (on-time behavior), & help learn more adaptive emotional responses

Operant Conditioning Process

antecedent (precedes behavior/context) - behavior - consequence (after behavior/change made)

6 Ways to Encourage Behavior

1) choose effective reinforcers 2) make reinforcements contingent/timely 3) use effective schedules 4) consider contracting 5) use negative reinforcement effectively 6) use prompts/shaping

Reinforcement Schedules

continuous (reinforce every response), intermittent/partial (reinforce after some, not all), fixed-ratio (reinforce after certain # of responses), variable-ratio (reinforce periodically/unpredictable), & fixed-interval (reinforce first response after certain period of time)

Effective Praise

to be effective it must be contingent on actual behavior, specific to behavior, & believable/sincere

4 Ways to Discourage Behavior

1) differential reinforcement 2) terminate reinforcement (extinction) 3) remove desirable stimuli 4) present aversive stimuli (punishment)

ABA Evaluation

therapy has lots of repetition which is hard on children (learn skills are not generalize), focuses too much on student conduct not academic learning, & trying to eliminate differences

Punishment Recommendations

punishment does not teach appropriate behaviors, focus on actions not personal qualities, be calm/firm, adapt punishment, & if behavior continues the punishment is not working

Group Punishment

rewards/punishments given to whole class, unfair to innocent/resentment/erosion of trust

Albert Bandura - 4 Elements of Observational/Vicarious Learning

attention (observer, pay attention to model’s behavior for learning to occur), retention (must remember observed behavior), production (seeing does not guarantee performance), & motivation (must be motivated to perform behavior)

3 Steps of Self-Management

1) goal setting 2) record/evaluate progress 3) self-reinforcement

Behavioral Principles For All

learning methods can be applied to academic/learning/work, no universal reinforcers, no one eagerly repeats punished behaviors, actions that lead to positive will be repeated, use reinforcement, & be a self-manager

Nass - Multitasking Research

multitaskers are terrible at multitasking, top 25% of Stanford students have 4+ media at one time (writing paper, facebook, listening to music, texting, tweeting), wastes time & limits concentration/creativity

Ways to Get Attention

use signals (hand, visual, auditory), reach out rather than call out, make sure purpose of lesson/task is clear, use variety/curiosity/surprise, & ask questions