Social Learning Theories CRIM1120

Edwin Sutherland

Chicago School sociologist who rejected individual-pathology explanations of crime; asked why some individuals are more likely to commit crime than others; developed differential association theory

Differential association theory

Sutherland's theory that each person associates with conventional and criminal cultures growing up, and each produces definitions for or against breaking the law

Two cultures in differential association theory

Conventional culture and criminal culture

Definitions (Sutherland)

One's values, beliefs, and attitudes, which can be either against breaking the law or in favor of breaking the law

Example: definition against breaking the law

Don't take someone else's property without permission; don't speed; don't go into a house just because the door is open

Example: definition in favor of breaking the law

It's okay to hit someone who offends you; drive off with a car that has the key in it; take an unconscious person's wallet

When criminal behavior occurs (differential association)

When a person is exposed to more definitions in favor of breaking the law than against it

Who criminal behavior is learned from (Sutherland)

Intimate others, such as peers and family members

How criminal behavior is learned (Sutherland)

The same way any other behavior is learned, through interaction

Frequency

Exposure to pro-crime definitions happens more often, increasing likelihood of crime

Duration

Exposure to pro-crime definitions lasts a longer period of time

Priority

Exposure to pro-crime definitions happens at an earlier age

Intensity

Pro-crime definitions come from people the individual has a stronger emotional attachment to

Differential association as a general theory of crime

Originally developed with low-income areas in mind (1930s), Sutherland later proposed it could explain any crime by any group anywhere, e.g. low-income women and high-income men

Criticisms of differential association theory

Doesn't explain crimes of passion, crimes by people surrounded by conventional groups, the origin of criminal cultures, or the mechanisms through which criminal definitions are adopted

Voss (1964)

Early study supporting differential association: juveniles with more delinquent friends were more likely to be delinquent themselves

Ronald Akers

Sociologist who studied under a conflict theorist but became a prominent mainstream criminologist; extended differential association into social learning theory in the 1970s

Conflict perspective

Argues that groups are criminalized based on how much power they have in society

Akers and Burgess (1966)

Article that incorporated behavioral psychology into differential association theory, arguing criminal behavior is learned through operant conditioning

Operant conditioning

B.F. Skinner's theory that behavior that is reinforced (rewarded) continues and behavior that is punished stops

B.F. Skinner

Psychologist who developed operant conditioning

Positive reinforcement

Addition of a pleasant stimulus, e.g. gaining new friends or feeling good after using a drug

Negative reinforcement

Removal of an unpleasant stimulus, e.g. a bullying experience ending or stress/pain stopping

Positive punishment

Addition of an unpleasant stimulus, e.g. pain or social stigma

Negative punishment

Removal of a pleasant stimulus, e.g. loss of privileges or loss of a cherished significant other

Social learning theory

Akers' theory that criminal behavior results from 4 components: imitation, association with criminal peers, definitions favoring lawbreaking, and differential social reinforcement

4 components of social learning theory

Imitation, differential association (criminal peers), definitions (general and specific), differential social reinforcement

Imitation

Copying others' behaviors; one of Akers' 4 components

Differential social reinforcement

Akers' term for the balance of anticipated or actual rewards and punishments that follow a behavior

Why crime starts vs. continues (Akers)

Initiated through imitation and criminal definitions; continued because the behavior is reinforced

Nature of reinforcement for crime (Akers)

Almost always social, e.g. elevated social status or acceptance by a peer group

Weaknesses of social learning theory

Doesn't explain crimes of passion; differential reinforcement assumes people respond rationally to rewards and punishments, but many factors can inhibit rational behavior

Pratt and colleagues (2010)

Analyzed 100+ empirical tests of social learning theory; found only differential association and definitions strongly affect crime, while imitation and differential reinforcement have weak effects

Empirical status of social learning theory

Supported in many studies, mostly of delinquency and minor crimes

Cultural deviance theories

Theories influenced by differential association that explain the emergence of subcultures in low-income areas, focusing on inner-city crime

Elijah Anderson

Author of the code of the street (1999), the most prominent cultural deviance theory

Code of the street

Anderson's (1999) explanation for why many young men in poor, predominantly minority neighborhoods engage in violence

"Decent" families

Inner-city families that promote conformity to the law and the value of legitimate work

"Street" families

Inner-city families that tend to be dysfunctional, use harsh discipline and poor supervision, and promote violence to resolve conflicts

Structural barriers (code of the street)

Lack of employment opportunities, racial discrimination, and an unfair criminal justice system, which block young men from gaining respect through traditional means like stable work

Essence of the code of the street

Willingness to use violence as a response to any slight, in order to build a violent reputation and gain respect

Other aspects of the code of the street

Flaunting material possessions (cars, jewelry) and accumulating as many sexual partners as possible

Code-switching

Anderson's term for men from "decent" families adopting the street code to protect themselves from victimization

Empirical findings on the code of the street

Mixed: adopting violent values increases committing violence but also increases becoming a victim, so Anderson was wrong that the code shields people from violence

Implications of social learning theories

Change the individual's environment (remove from high-crime areas, keep youth from gangs, e.g. a Kentucky anti-gang initiative) and use cognitive behavioral therapy

Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT)

Policy implication of social learning theories: changing people's unhealthy attitudes and thoughts (i.e., their definitions)