Lab Practical 2 - Content

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What is the cardiac cycle?

Cycle of contraction and relaxation of both atria and ventricles

What is systole?

Contraction of an atrium or ventricle; blood is pumped out

What is diastole?

Relaxation of an atrium or ventricle; blood fills the chamber

During atrial diastole, where does blood enter the atria from?

Veins

What percentage of ventricular filling is passive?

80%

What percentage of ventricular filling is due to atrial systole?

20%

What closes the AV valves during ventricular systole?

Rising ventricular pressure

When does ventricular systole begin?

Shortly after atrial systole

During passive ventricular filling, are AV valves open or closed?

Open

During passive ventricular filling, are semilunar valves open or closed?

Closed

During isovolumetric contraction, what is the status of both valve sets?

Both AV and semilunar valves are closed

During ventricular ejection, which valves are open?

Semilunar valves

During isovolumetric relaxation, which valves are open?

Neither; both sets are closed

What is end-diastolic volume (EDV)?

Ventricular volume at the end of diastole

What is end-systolic volume (ESV)?

Ventricular volume at the end of systole

What is stroke volume (SV) in terms of EDV and ESV?

SV = EDV − ESV

What produces the first heart sound (lub)?

Closure of AV valves

What produces the second heart sound (dub)?

Closure of semilunar valves

What instrument is used to auscultate heart sounds?

Stethoscope

What is a heart murmur?

An abnormal heart sound indicating a valve defect

What is a pulse?

Surge of arterial pressure as the heart ejects blood

What is heart rate measured in?

Beats per minute (bpm)

What is the slide’s normal resting heart-rate range?

60–100 bpm

What average resting heart-rate range does the slide give?

70–76 bpm

What is the average heartbeat duration listed?

0.8 seconds

How do you calculate heart rate from beat duration?

60 seconds ÷ seconds per beat

What is blood pressure?

Pressure exerted against arterial walls

What is systolic blood pressure?

Arterial pressure during ventricular systole

What is diastolic blood pressure?

Arterial pressure during ventricular diastole

What instrument measures blood pressure?

Sphygmomanometer

What units measure blood pressure?

mmHg

In what order is blood pressure written?

Systolic over diastolic

Where is the blood-pressure cuff placed?

Upper left arm

Where should the stethoscope be placed for blood-pressure measurement?

Over the brachial artery

How quickly should cuff pressure be released?

About 2 mmHg per second

How is pulse pressure calculated?

Systolic BP − diastolic BP

What homeostatic water-related function do kidneys regulate?

Water balance

What blood pH-related function does the urinary system regulate?

Acid–base balance

Which plasma electrolytes are listed as regulated by the urinary system?

Calcium, sodium, and potassium

Which cardiovascular variables does the urinary system regulate?

Blood pressure and blood volume

What vitamin does the urinary system activate?

Vitamin D3 to calcitriol

What blood-related process does the urinary system stimulate?

Blood cell production

What three waste categories does the urinary system eliminate?

Nitrogenous wastes, toxins, and drugs

What is the primary role of the kidneys?

Produce urine

What is the role of ureters?

Carry urine from kidneys to bladder

What is the role of the bladder?

Temporary urine storage

What is the role of the urethra?

Carry urine out of the body

Where do renal vessels enter and leave the kidney?

Renal hilum

What do renal arteries do?

Deliver blood to the kidneys

What do renal veins do?

Carry blood away from the kidneys

How many ureters are normally present?

Two, one per kidney

What structure is continuous with each ureter?

Renal pelvis

Where do ureters enter the bladder?

Posterior aspect

Are ureters anterior or posterior to the peritoneum?

Posterior (retroperitoneal)

What moves urine along the ureters?

Peristalsis aided by gravity

What is the urinary bladder made of?

A smooth, collapsible muscular sac

What urine volume does the slide give for a moderately full bladder?

About 500 mL

What is the trigone?

Triangular region of the bladder base

How many openings are in the bladder trigone?

Three: two ureteral and one urethral

What gland surrounds the bladder neck in males?

Prostate

What is the detrusor muscle?

Three layers of bladder smooth muscle

What epithelium lines the bladder mucosa?

Transitional epithelium

How does the wall of an empty bladder appear?

Thick and folded

What happens to internal pressure as the bladder expands?

It can expand considerably without much pressure increase

What type of muscle is the internal urethral sphincter?

Smooth muscle

Is the internal urethral sphincter voluntary?

No, involuntary

What type of muscle is the external urethral sphincter?

Skeletal muscle

Is the external urethral sphincter voluntary?

Yes

What is the female urethra length listed on the slide?

3–4 cm

What is the male urethra length listed on the slide?

20 cm

What does the female urethra transport?

Urine only

What does the male urethra transport?

Urine and sperm

What structures does the male urethra pass through?

Prostate and penis

At what vertebral levels are kidneys located?

T12–L3

Which kidney is slightly lower?

Right kidney

Why is the right kidney lower?

Position of the liver

What is the outer kidney region?

Renal cortex

What kidney region lies deep to the cortex?

Renal medulla

What is the renal pelvis?

Inner collecting tube

What is the renal hilum?

Medial indentation for ureter, blood vessels, and nerves

What are renal pyramids?

Triangular tissue regions in the renal medulla

What are renal columns?

Cortex-like tissue extending between medullary pyramids

What is the functional unit of the kidney?

Nephron

What is the main function of nephrons?

Urine formation

What two capillary beds are associated with nephrons?

Glomerular and peritubular capillaries

Where does filtration occur in the nephron?

Renal corpuscle

Which capillary network filters blood?

Glomerulus

Where does filtered fluid enter?

Glomerular (Bowman’s) capsule

Which vessel supplies peritubular capillaries?

Efferent arteriole

Are peritubular capillaries high- or low-pressure?

Low-pressure

What is the renal tubule filtrate path?

Glomerular capsule → PCT → nephron loop → DCT

Where does the distal convoluted tubule empty?

Collecting duct

Does one collecting duct receive fluid from one or many nephrons?

Many nephrons

What percentage of nephrons are cortical?

About 85%

Where are juxtamedullary nephrons located?

Near the cortex–medulla boundary

In what direction does filtration move fluid?

Glomerulus → glomerular capsule

In what direction does reabsorption move substances?

Renal tubule → peritubular capillaries

In what direction does secretion move substances?

Peritubular capillaries → renal tubule

How much urine is normally produced in 24 hours according to the slide?

1–1.8 liters