research (u3)

Empirical methods

Research based on observation and evidence rather than intuition.

Hindsight bias

Believing an outcome was predictable after it has occurred.

I knew it all along phenomenon

Another name for hindsight bias.

Confirmation bias

Seeking evidence that supports existing beliefs while ignoring contradictory evidence.

Overconfidence

Overestimating the accuracy of our knowledge or judgments.

Scientific attitude

Curiosity, skepticism, and humility when evaluating evidence.

Curiosity

Desire to explore and understand the world.

Skepticism

Questioning claims and requiring evidence before accepting them.

Humility

Recognizing that our beliefs may be wrong.

Critical thinking

Evaluating evidence and assumptions rather than automatically accepting conclusions.

Theory

An explanation that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction based on a theory.

Falsifiability

The possibility that evidence could prove a hypothesis wrong.

Operational definition

A precise description of how variables are measured or manipulated.

Replication

Repeating a study to see whether its findings can be reproduced.

Case study

In-depth investigation of one person or a small group.

Naturalistic observation

Observing behavior in a natural setting without interference.

Survey - CORRELATION

Collecting self-reported information through questions.

Sampling bias

When a sample does not accurately represent the population.

Population

The entire group researchers want to study.

Sample

A smaller group selected from a population.

Random sample

A sample in which every population member has an equal chance of selection.

Representative sample

A sample that accurately reflects the population.

Generalizability

How well findings apply to a larger population.

Large sample size

Reduces sampling error and generally improves representativeness.

Experiment

A research method that manipulates variables to test cause and effect.

Experimental group

Group exposed to the treatment or independent variable.

Control group

Group not exposed to the treatment; used for comparison.

Random assignment

Placing participants into groups by chance to reduce preexisting differences.

Independent variable (IV)

Variable deliberately manipulated by the researcher.

Dependent variable (DV)

Variable measured to determine the effect of the IV.

Confounding variable

Outside factor that may influence the DV and distort results.

Participant bias

Participants change their behavior because they know they are being studied.

Social desirability bias

Responding in ways that seem socially acceptable rather than truthfully.

Experimenter bias

Researcher's expectations unintentionally influence results.

Placebo effect

Changes caused by expectations rather than an active treatment.

Placebo

Inactive treatment resembling the real treatment.

Single-blind procedure

Participants do not know whether they receive the treatment or placebo.

Double-blind procedure

Neither participants nor interacting researchers know group assignments.

Random sampling vs. random assignment

Sampling selects participants; assignment places them into experimental groups.

Correlational study (SURVEY)

Examines relationships between variables without manipulating them.

Correlation

A relationship between two variables.

Correlation coefficient (r)

Number from −1 to +1 indicating relationship strength and direction.

Positive correlation

Two variables tend to increase or decrease together.

Negative correlation

One variable increases as the other decreases.

Zero correlation

No linear relationship between two variables.

Strong correlation

Correlation coefficient close to −1 or +1.

Weak correlation

Correlation coefficient close to 0.

Scatterplot

Graph of points showing the relationship between two variables.

Correlation vs. causation

A relationship does not prove that one variable causes another.

Third-variable problem

An outside variable may explain a correlation.

Illusory correlation

Perceiving a relationship between variables when none exists.

Regression toward the mean

Extreme results tend to become less extreme when measured again.

Peer review

Experts evaluate research before publication.

Replication crisis

Difficulty reproducing findings from previous studies.

Preregistration

Recording hypotheses and methods before collecting data.

Transparency

Openly reporting research methods, data, and results.

Statistical significance

Evidence that a result is unlikely under the null hypothesis.

p ≤ .05

statistically significant

p>0.5

NOT significant

Generalizability in research

Whether findings apply beyond the original participants.

Representative participants

Participants who reflect the characteristics of the target population.

Experimental methods

Methods that manipulate variables to investigate cause and effect.

Nonexperimental methods

Methods that observe or measure without manipulating variables (correlation/survey, naturalistic obs, case study)

Descriptive research

Research that describes behavior without establishing causation.

Correlational research

Research examining associations between variables.

Informed consent

Participants receive study information and voluntarily agree to participate.

Confidentiality

Protecting participants' private information.

Debriefing

Explaining a study's purpose and any deception afterward.

Protection from harm

Researchers must minimize physical and psychological risks.

Right to withdraw

Participants may leave a study without penalty.

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

Committee that reviews research to protect participants.

Self-report bias

Inaccuracies arising when participants describe their own behavior.

Wording effects

Question phrasing influences participants' answers.

Order effects

The sequence of questions or tasks influences responses.

Volunteer bias

Volunteers may differ systematically from nonvolunteers.

Participant expectancy

Participants' expectations influence their behavior or responses.

Researcher expectancy

Researchers' expectations influence observations or treatment.

Demand characteristics

Clues that reveal what researchers expect from participants.

Experimenter effects

Changes in results caused by researcher behavior or expectations.

Validity

Extent to which a study measures what it intends to measure.

Reliability

Consistency of measurements or results.

Positive scatterplot

Points generally rise from left to right.

Negative scatterplot

Points generally fall from left to right.

No-correlation scatterplot

Points show no clear upward or downward pattern.

Correlation-causation fallacy

Incorrectly assuming correlation proves causation.

Extraneous variable

Any outside factor that could influence the dependent variable.

Control variables

Factors kept constant to reduce alternative explanations.

Experimental validity

How accurately an experiment tests its intended cause-and-effect relationship.

Internal validity

Confidence that the IV caused changes in the DV.

External validity

Extent to which results generalize to other people or settings.

Experimental design

Plan for manipulating, controlling, and measuring variables.

Quantitative research

Research using numerical measurements and statistical analysis.

Qualitative research

Research using nonnumerical information such as interviews and observations.

Mixed-methods research

Combines quantitative and qualitative approaches.

Theory testing

Using evidence to evaluate predictions derived from an explanation.

Ethical principles

Rules designed to protect participants' rights and well-being.

Voluntary participation

Participation freely chosen without coercion.

Deception

Misleading participants about aspects of a study when ethically justified.

Anonymity

Participants' identities cannot be linked to their responses.