University of Waterloo PSYCH 207 - Chapter 5 (Memory Structures)

Modal Model of Memory

The model proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin that describes memory as a mechanism that involves processing information through a series of stages (as well as being dependant on the KIND of memory: unattended to, attended, needed for long term):

1. sensory memory

2. short-term memory

3. long-term memory.

It is called the modal model because of the great influence it has had on memory research.

Sensory memory

Close to perception, there is one of these kinds of memory processors for each sense (KEY: and they differ)

KEYYY: An imprint to help you process further

iconic memory? What is a key caveat to this?

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli

EX. letters being displayed - only lasts for a moment in memory and then starts to fade so you can only get so many

Masking - An icon can be erased when other stimulus is presented right after it

KEYYY - dat info that be stored in the icon is ONLY visual -> you can't recall what a letter rhymes with, for example (auditory)

echoic memory? What is a caveat to this?

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli

- Has a larger capacity than iconic memory (lasts longer)

- The suffix effect (auditory masking) (saying good bye after providing the phone number)

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last (a recency effect) and first items (a primacy effect) in a list

__________ helps enter information into long term storage . . . how do you eliminate _________ and __________ effects?

"rehearsal"

KEY: if information is read quickly enough, the primacy effect disappears (because there isn't enough time to rehearse), but the recency effect stays

KEY: If information is followed by an unrelated task, recency effect disappears (echoic is gone), but primacy stays

What is the capacity of short term memory? How do you overcome this limitation?

7 +/- 2 items

- Chunking!

/ Acoustics is the dominated coding mechanism for what? What is this called scientifically?

STM

Mental representations

retention duration . . . what are the facets of this? What is example of trace decay?

if not rehearsed, information is lost from STM in as little as 20 seconds

- "memory trace" - the eoncoded mental representation of the to-be-remembered information that is not rehearsed "DECAYS" within 20 seconds

EX TRACE DECAY: Counting backwards by threes before doing a sentence recall task

memory interference

occurs when consumers have difficulty retrieving a specific piece of information because other NEWER related information in memory gets in the way

/ What is proactive interference? How did it come to be? What is it's opposite

Previous learning can make the retention of new learning more difficult

EX. If you study french, then German, and your friend only studies German, you will do worse

Forgetting in the "remembering letters after you've counted backwards for varying periods of time" doesn't happen until after a few trialzz. Proactive interference builds up --> material learned first can disrupt retention of subsequent learned material --> the greater the similarity of the new and old information, the greater the interference

Opposite --> "release from proactive interference"

EX.

Decay might exist to . . .

stop detrimental proactive interference

In STM retrieval, what are the four types of searches?

Parallel (all at once) and Serial (one by one)

Self terminating (stops when match is found; quick) and exhaustive (a search that continues until the test item is compared with all items in the memory set, successful and unsuccessful searches of a target take the same amount of time

/ What is Sternberg's theory of STM retrieval?

It is serial and exhaustive

reaction time increases linearly (because you have to check them one at a time)

KEY: The serial part is more important than the exhaustive . . . the exhaustive is more context dependent

KEY: The search process itself is hard to stop one it's started . . . better processing wise to just run everything and not have to make a decision about when to stop

How much information can be held in LTM?

Basically infinite, some people say 10^13-10^20 estimating based on number to synapses or on lifetime number of neural impulses

Errors made while recalling information from LTM are likely to be . . . This has informed the conclusion that . . .

semantic confusions (similar MEANING)

STM is acoustic, LTM is semantic

permastore memory? Example?

Memory thats retained and can last a lifetime.

Spanish words learned decays at an exponential rate for the first couple years after learning them, and then stabilize at a certain set of words

What is paired associates learning?

Participants hear lists of pairs of words such as flag-spoon and drawer-switch (some people learn altered pairings as well, and these people experience PI since there is new learning) --> trying to demonstrate proactive interference in LTM

(learning 3 languages at the same time as opposed to 2)

retroactive interference (provide example)

the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information (studying german words the day before your french exam)

Retrieval cues

can become diluted with many targets (parking in the same lot everyday, but in different places)

/ fan effect . . . what gets the ball rolling for this (what is the science basis of this)?

The more a person studies (OR HAS EXPERIENCE WITH) a particular concept, the time they need to retrieve a particular SPECIFIC fact about that concept increases

Based on retrieval cues . . . if you aren't able to remember because of the fan effect, it's because too many target memories are competing

EX. Finding your parked car

Forgetting can be useful because . . .

It prevents proactive interference

/ What are the principals of LTM retrieval? (2 Keys here)

Memory Categorization - Easier to remember categorized things for LTM

Encoding specificity - Memory is improved when information available at encoding is also available at retrieval ("CONTEXT EFFECTS"- doing an exam in the same room the class was in)

/ What does research about context effects suggest?

Context effects work for retrieval, but not for recognition (especially for physical contexts)

state-dependent memory? What is a caveat to this?

the phenomenon through which memory retrieval is most efficient when an individual is in the same state of consciousness as they were when the memory was formed (drank)

Only found in recall, not recognition

/ working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

KEY: Integrates STORAGE and CONTROL, a limited capacity 'workspace'

KEY BABY TIMES: Has been linked to fluid intelligence and gets worse with aging

EX. Trying to hold digits in your mind as you perform another STM task makes you worse at recall

Working Memory consists of what three components? What is the newer bonus one?

1. Central Executive - Directs the flow of information (which should be operated on, more attentional than anything)

2. Phonological loop - Carries out auditory information

3. Visuospatial sketch pad - maintain visual material

BONUS ROUND

B. Episodic buffer - Required when remembering specific events from the past (CONNECTS visual and auditory)

/ What are the two aspects of the phonological loop?

Phonological buffer and the sub-vocal rehearsal loop

What are the type categories of memory? These are?

Episodic (PERSONAL, FEELING experience) and Semantic

MEMORY SYSTEMS

What are the two kinds of amnesia?

retrograde and anterograde (Future memories)

/ Frontal lobe damage impacts working memory not because it can't register information . . .

But because it can't ignore irrelevant stimuli

long-term potentiation . . . what is this also called?

Neural circuits in the hippocampus that are subjected to repeated and intense electrical stimulation develop hippocampal cells that become more sensitive to stimuli

ALSO called the Hebb rule

KEY: This might be how long term learning works

/ What brain structures are involved in memory?

Hippocampus and medial temporal cortex

What is the partial report technique (clue: based on a key study)? What are the two response types? What is the conclusion

This is where participants are asked to identify subset of characters using cued recall.

Cue - tone of different frequencies.

FULL Report - Recite as many as possible

PARTIAL Report - Recite only the cued row

Partial report is better because they are able to focus the delivery of the imprint in their minds

What are attributes of iconic vs. echoic memory?

Iconic:

- Duration: 1 second

- Quantity: Visual Field

- Contents: Physical features

Echoic:

- Duration: 4-5 seconds

- Quantity: LESS than ICONIC

- Contents: Categorical

What is the ecological purpose of sensory memory? (2)

1. Chronologically order things

2. Gives you times to decide what to give your attention to

The serial position effect is evidence of the existence of

(Recency, primacy)

Longterm and short term memory

What is a way to nullify the primacy effect? What does this technique impact? How does it work?

Articulatory suppression: The act of suppressing sub vocal articulation by repeating non-sense material

KEY: This is meant to tie up your auditory system, but not your visual system (for some tests)

Ties up your ability to rehearse -> commit to long term memory

/ What is the brain structure for memory you wouldn't think of?

Entorhinal cortex

Patients with amnesia have no _____________ effect

primacy

/ What are the two kinds of LTM encoding? What is an aspect of one of these?

Maintenance rehearsal:

- hold info without transferring it deeper (just repeating the same old thing, as opposed to adding something)

Elaborative rehearsal:

- Richer memory, makes it easier to retrieve and keep

- The generation effect: things are easier to remember if YOU generate them

How do people forget in different conditions?

Decay -> STM

Interference -> LTM

What is the suffix effect?

Poorer memory for a series of items if there is an additional sound at the end of the list

What is the masking effect?

The suffix of iconic memory