Contemporary Issues in Biology Exam 2

how many types of proteins are humans made of

about 2 million

what do humans run on

the energy of ATP converted from glucose and fats

what is cellular respiration

the process by which energy of glucose (sugar) is converted into the energy of ATP that is used by the cells to stay alive

where does cellular respiration occur

in the mitocondria

do all cells have a mitocondria

yes, all cells have a mitochondria for cellular respiration and the production of ATP

what is the energy for the contraction of a muscle supplied by

ATP

what is the ATP-ADP cycle

ADP is a low energy molecule, cellular respiration converts ADP to ATP, ATP is a high energy molecule, muscle contraction "uses" ATP (ATP is converted back to ADP

what is ATP

it is a tri-phosphate, has 3 phosphate groups, higher energy state, more available energy for the cell

what is ADP

it is a di-phosphate, 2 phosphate groups, lower energy state, no available energy for the cell

what are the three types of food molecules

protein, fat, carbohydrates

what is a protein

chains of amino acids

what is a fat

glycerol bonded to three fatty acids

what is a carbohydrate

individual or chains or simple sugar units

What is protein synthesis

two amino acids bond together through condensation synthesis or hydrolysis to form a protein (bonded by a peptide bond) and a water molecule

fat synthesis

fats are composed of a glycerol molecule bonded to three fatty acids. Fats provide for long term energy storage. Fats are high energy molecules as seen by all of the hydrogen atoms bonded to the carbons on the fatty acid tails.

carbohydrate synthesis maltose

Simple sugars (monosaccharides) may be attached to other simple sugars to form double sugars (disaccharides)

carbohydrate starch

When many simple sugars are joined together we end up with a complex carbohydrate (polysaccharide)

it is readily broken down by the digestive system into individual glucose molecules to fuel cellular respiration throughout the body

carbohydrate cellulose

cellulose is in the walls of plant cells.Humans do not produce an enzyme to digest cellulose (therefore it passes through the digestive system as undigested "fiber")

path of food molecules

food > digestive system > circulatory system > body cells

parts of the digestive system

mouth, salivary glands, esophagus, liver, gastric glands, gall bladder, stomach, pancreas, small intestine, large intestine

before digestion: food molecules that are too large to move from the digestive tract into blood

protein, fat, carbohydrates

after digestion: molecules that can move from digestive tract into blood

amino acids, glycerol and fatty acids, glucose

What is the hepatic portal vein

veins that delivers nutrient rich blood to the liver; Digested food molecules like amino acids, glucose, and fatty acids pass through the villi of the small intestine and after passing through the liver travel throughout the body

capillary system

capillaries are found throughout the body and each body cell is serviced by the capillary.

what comes out of the capillary at the arterial end

water, oxygen, amino acids, and glucose

what moves into the capillary at the venous end

carbon dioxide, wastes, and water

periodontitis

serious gum infection that destroys the soft tissue and bone that support your teeth. Periodontitis can cause tooth loss or worse, an increased risk of heart attack or stroke and other serious health problems

tartar

plaque that stays on your teeth longer than 2 or 3 days can harden under your gum line into tartar. tartar makes plaque more difficult to remove and acts as a reservoir for bacteria. you usually cant get rid of tartar by brushing or flossing, you need a professional dental cleaning to remove it

when does acid reflux occur

acid reflux occurs when the sphincter muscle at the lower end of your esophagus relaxes at the wrong time, allowing stomach acid to back up into your esophagus.

what can acid reflux cause

acid reflux can cause heartburn and other signs and symptoms. Frequent or constant reflux can lead to gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD).

peptic ulcer

peptic ulcers are open sores that develop on the inside lining of your esophagus, stomach and the upper portion of your small intestine from the effects of stomach acid

what causes peptic ulcers

A bacteria, Heliobacter pylori, was discovered to be the cause of ulcers. It disrupts the protective mucus covering of the lining of the stomach and allows stomach acid to cause ulcers

who discovered the cause of peptic ulcers

Dr. Barry Marshall received the Nobel Prize for discovering this

what has been proven to not cause stomach ulcers

it's a myth that spicy foods or a stressful job can cause peptic ulcers. Doctors now know that a bacterial infection or some medications — not stress or diet — cause most peptic ulcers.

how can you treat ulcers

Ulcers can be treated with oral antibiotics and acid reducing medications.

how many people do eating disorders effect

up to 8 million Americans, 90% of eating disorders occur in girls or women, most starting in adolescence

anorexis nervosa

people with anorexia:

- may see themselves as overweight even when they are underweight

- typically weigh themselves repeatedly, severely restrict the amount of food they eat, only eat very small quantities of only certain foods

- has the highest mortality rate of any mental disorder, many young men and women who die from this disorder die from complications associated with starvation, others die of suicide

symptoms of anorexia nervosa

-extremely restricted eating

-extreme thinness (emaciation)

-relentless pursuit of thinness and unwillingness to maintain a normal/healthy weight

-intense fear of gaining weight

-distorted body image, self-esteem that is heavily influenced by perceptions of body weight and shape, or a denial of the seriousness of low body weight

bulimia nervosa

people with bulimia nervosa:

-have recurrent and frequent episodes of eating unusually large amounts of food (and feel lack of control over these episodes)

-compensate for this binge eating by following it with behaviors such as forced vomiting, excessive exercise, excessive use of laxatives or diuretics, or a combination

-usually maintain a healthy or relatively normal body weight

symptoms of bulimia nervosa

• chronically inflamed and sore throat

• Swollen salivary glands in the neck and jaw area

• Worn tooth enamel and increasingly sensitive and decaying teeth as a result of exposure to stomach acid

• Acid reflux disorder and other gastrointestinal problems

• Intestinal distress and irritation from laxative abuse

• Severe dehydration from purging of fluids

• Electrolyte imbalance (too low or too high levels of sodium, calcium, potassium and other minerals) which can lead to stroke or heart attack

how do gastric fluids effect teeth

gastric fluids from the stomach erode the enamel of teeth during vomiting and change the morphology of the teeth.

binge eating disorder

- people with binge eating disorder lose control over their eating

- periods of binge eating are not followed by purging, excessive exercise or fasting

- people with this order are often overweight or obese

symptoms of binge eating disorder

• Eating unusually large amounts of food in a specific amount of time

• Eating even when you're full or not hungry

• Eating fast during binge episodes• Eating until you're uncomfortably full

• Eating alone or in secret to avoid embarrassment

• Feeling distressed, ashamed, or guilty about your eating

• Frequently dieting, possibly without weight loss

risk factors for eating disorders

- frequently develop in teen or young adult years (can occur in childhood or later in life)

- affect both genders, but rates are 2 1/2 time greater among women than men

- eating disorders are caused by a complex interaction of genetic, biological, behavioral, psychological, and social factors

- society puts a lot of pressure on women to look like models

treatment of eating disorders

psychotherapy and drug therapy; if treated men and women with these disorders can lead normal lives

why do children look like their parents

Genes are passed down from parents and our genes encode our traits, these genes are made of DNA and reside in the chromosomes passed down to us from our parents

how many chromosomes come from each child's parent

23

what are the 4 nucleotide bases and how do they pair with each other

G pairs with C

A pairs with T

what are genes made of

DNA

approximately how many genes does a human have

25,000

genes contain instructions for building what

proteins

during the making of a chromosome, DNA is wrapped around what

proteins

how many chromosomes do mosquitoes have

6

how many chromosomes do onions have

16

how many chromosomes do humans have

46

how many chromosomes do carp have

104

sources of DNA that might be present at a crime scene

skin, hair, blood, saliva, semen

describe the steps you would take in the lab to create a DNA profile

Collection of evidence from the crime scene, isolate the DNA from the sample, cut the DNA into fragments, separate the negatively charged DNA fragments, transfer DA fragments from the gel to a sheet of membrane, probe the membrane with DNA fragments that complement the DNA sequence of the fragments of interest, compare the fragment profile with people of interest, re-probe membrane up to 10 more times to identify different fragments

what are some steps you would take to assure that your DNA test results are accurate

-Proper handling of evidence

-Careful analysis by an unbiased forensic laboratory

-Fair and appropriate interpretation of the results

-Accurate and effective reporting of results to judges and jurors

why would a scientist run a gel (DNA testing)

in order to sort DNA strands by length since they are unable to be seen even under a microscope

what are some things you need to run a gel (DNA testing)

powdered agarose, buffer, a flask, a microwave, the gel comb, DNA, electric current, DNA staining solution, UV light box

what can a gel tell you (DNA testing)

the length of the DNA strands

where does DNA transcription take place

nucleus

after transcription where does the mRNA go and what does it do once it is there

The cytoplasm where the protein making machinery, ribosome, is located, where it then translates into the amino acid sequence of the protein

instead of Thymine (T) mRNA uses what

Uracil (U)

Does each amino acid have just one nucleotide code

no

what do these amino acids join together to form

proteins

functions of the right ventricle of the heart

pumps blood to lungs to get oxygen and get rid of carbon dioxide

functions of the left ventricle of the heart

pumps blood to organs and cells of the body to supply nutrients and pickup waste

where does the pulmonary artery carry blood

from the right ventricle to the lungs

where does the aorta carry blood

from the left ventricle to the body

what stops blood from flowing backwards in the heart

valves between chambers

how does the heart beat

the atria contract together then the ventricles contract together then the heart muscle relaxes

control of the heart beat

the heart muscles contract due to electrical to electrical signals generated by nervous tissue contained within the heart; there are two masses of nervous tissue that generate electrical signals (the SA node and the AV node)

how many miles of blood vessels do adult humans have?

100,000 miles

why is blood pressure needed

to deliver (or force) blood to capillaries beds where gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) and glucose can be exchanged with cells

how many red blood cells can flow through a capillary at one time

the capillary is only large enough to allow red blood cells to flow through "single file"

where are capillaries found

throughout the body; each body cell is serviced by the capillary

what can high blood pressure cause

damage to walls of arteries, deposition of plaque in arteries and hardening of arteries, and heart disease and strokes

when is systolic pressure measured

as the ventricles contract

when is diastolic pressure measured

when ventricles are at rest

how is blood pressure measured

systolic pressure/diastolic pressure

what is considered a normal blood pressure

120/80

what is considered onset of hypertension

140/90

what is considered stage 2 hypertension

160/100

what is considered malignant hypertension

220/120 or greater

treatment for high blood pressure

stop smoking, adopt a healthful diet, exercise, lose weight especially around the middle, limit sodium intake, drug therapy (drugs have side effects including impotence)

risks of a high intake of saturated fat

increase in LDL:HDL ratio in blood, increased deposition of cholesterol in arteries of the heart, blockage of arteries and death of heart muscle

LDL cholesterol

low density lipoprotein (bad cholesterol) deposits fatty particles in your blood vessels to form plaques and block arteries

HDL cholesterol

high density lipoprotein (good cholesterol) carries fatty particles from your blood vessels

how does atherosclerosis develop

fats can begin to deposit on the inner lining of the vessel, over time, more and more fat will accumulate and begin to occlude the vessel causing a blockage. If the fat plaque ruptures, a blood clot can form and will completely prevent blood from flowing through the vessel

how does unstable plaque result in a heart attack

the coronary artery supplies blood to heart tissue, if the cap on the plaque ruptures a clot can form and block blood flow in the coronary article, resulting in a heart attack

why do heart attacks cause heart muscle to die

the heart muscle cells die if the cells do not get oxygen for cellular respiration and cannot produce ATP

coronary bypass

When a blockage reduces blood flow to an area of the heart muscle, a bypass may be necessary to restore blood flow to the heart muscle

The replacement vessel is often taken from the upper leg or mammary area and is inserted into the aorta and then grafted to the damaged vessel below the blockage

mediterranean diet

the Mediterranean diet is primarily based on plant-based foods, eating fish and poultry at least twice a week and limiting red meat to no than a few times per month. It discourages saturated fats and trans fats and features olive oil. It includes a moderate amount of wine

benefits of the mediterranean diet

•reduces the risk of cardiovascular mortality

•Associated with lower levels of LDL

•Reduced incidence of cancer and Parkinson's and Alzheimer's diseases

what are the two types of strokes

ischemic and hemorrhagic

ischemic strokes

87% of strokes are caused by the blockage of an artery

hemorrhagic strokes

13% of strokes are caused by bleeding

benefits of moderate drinking

alcohol beverages offer pharmacological benefits, especially to people at elevated risk of heart disease, it increases the good (HDL) cholesterol