Educational pscyhology ch.4.6

antecedent stimuli

events that precede a behavior such as cues

aversive stimuli

an unpleasant consequence that someone tries to avoid/escape

behavioral learning theories

explanations of learning that emphasize observable changes in behavior

classical conditioning

process of repeatedly associating a previously neutral stimulus with an unconditional stimulus in order to evolve a conditioned response

cognitive behavior modification

procedures based on both behavioral and cognitive principles for changing one’s own behavior by means of self-talk and self-instruction

cognitive learning theories

explanations of learning that focus on mental processes

conditioned stimulus

a previously neutral stimulus that evolves a particular response after being paired with an unconditional stimulus

consequences

pleasant/unpleasant that follow behaviors and affect the frequency of future behaviors

Cues

hints to change/unchange behavior

discrimination

use of cues, signals, or info to determine when behavior is likely to be reinforced

extinction

weakening and eventual elimination of a learned behavior as reinforcement is withdrawn

extinction burst

increase in levels of behavior in early stages of extinction

extrinsic reinforcers

praise/rewards given to motivate someone to engage in behavior that they normally would not engage in

intrinsic reinforcer

behaviors someone enjoys engaging in for his/her own sake, without any other reward

Fixed interval (FI) schedule

reinforcement schedule in which desired behavior is rewarded following a constant amount of time

Variable Ratio (VR) schedule

reinforcement schedule in which desired behavior is rewarded following an unpredictable number of behaviors

Fixed Ratio (FR) schedule

reinforcement schedule in which desired behavior is rewarded following a fixed number of behaviors

schedule(s) of reinforcement

frequency and predictability of reinforcement

generalization

transfer of learning from one setting to another

learning

a change in individuals that results from experience

maintenance

continuation (of behavior)

modeling

the imitation of others’ behavior

negative reinforcer

release from an unpleasant situation, given to strengthen behavior ex.) release from doing dishes

Positive reinforcer

strengthen behavior through pleasurable consequence (ex. praise, stickers)

neutral stimuli

Stimuli that have no effect on a particular response

observational learning

learning by observation and imitation of others

Phase one observational learning

attention- pay attention to a model

Phase 2 observational learning

retention- model demonstrates while student imitates

Phase 3

reproduction- student tries to match the model

Phase 4 observational learning

motivational- practicing in anticipation of reinforcement

vicarous learning

learning based on observation of the consequences of others’ behaviors

operant conditioning

use praise to reinforce a student for desired behavior

premack priniciple

making access to something desirable contingent on doing something less desirable

presentation punishment

an aversive stimulus following a behavior, used to decrease chance of repeated behavior

punishment

unpleasant consequences used to weaken behavior

reinforcer

a pleasurable consequence that maintains/increases behavior

shaping

teaching of a new skill/behavior by means of reinforcement for small steps toward the desired goal

removal punishment

withdrawal of a pleasant consequence that may be reinforcing a behavior

response cost

procedure of charging misbehaving students against their free time or other privileges

time out

removal of a student from a situation in which misbehavior was being reinforced

Skinner box

an apparatus for studying the behavior of animals in experiments that involved operant condtioning

social learning theories

learning theories that emphasize not only reinforcement but also the effects of cues on thoughts and of thought on action

stimuli (stimulus)

environmental conditions that activate the senses

unconditioned response

behavior prompted automatically by a stimulus

unconditioned stimulus

stimulus naturally evokes a particular response

Consequences is only seen as punishment if

it decreases undesirable behavior

immediate consequences are far more effective than

delayed ones

perception

person’s interpretation of stimuli

Sensory register

component of the memory system in which info is received and held for a very short period of time

information processing theory

cognitive theory of learning that describes the processing, storage, and retrieval of knowledge in the mind

attention

active focus on certain stimuli to the exclusion of others

working memory

component of memory in which limited amounts of info can be stored for a few secs (also called short term memory)

rehearsal

repeating info to keep it in working memory longer

Long-term memory (large capacity)

components of memory in which large amounts of info can be stored for long periods of time

3 parts of long-term memory

episodic- images of experience arranged by events space/time (sensory info, spatial knowledge, language, emotions, and motor info), semantic memory- stores facts and general knowledge (schemata: categorical groupings of related ideas), procedural memory- stores info about how to do things (stored in different part of brain than semantic and episodic)

flashbulb memory

important events fixed mainly in visual and auditory memory

schemata

mental networks of related concepts that influence understanding of new info (singular: schema)

neurons

long cell in the brain that helps transmit info

dendrites

branched projections at the end of a neuron that help conduct info in a brain cell

synapses

tiny branches on the end of a dendrite that receive stimuli and pass them onto other neurons or to the brain

brain stem

controls basic functions

limbic system

layer immediately above brain stem, composed of the thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus, and amygdala

hypothalamus

portion of brain that controls the release of hormones and functions such as sleep, hunger, and thrist

hippocampus

part of the brain that controls transfer of info from short-term to long-term memory

amygdala

part of the brain that regulates basic emotions

cerebral cortex

main part o the brain, which carries out the highest mental functions

cerebullum

part of the brain that controls smooth, coordinated movement

advance organizers

to orient students to material they are about to learn

corpus callosum

structure that connects the two hemispheres of the brain and coordinates their functioning

automaticity

level of rapidity and ease such that tasks can be performed or skills utilized with little mental effort

analogies

to compare to concepts students already know

distributed practice

technique in which items to be learned are repeated at intervals over a period of time

dual code theory of memory

theory suggesting that info coded both visually and verbally is remembered better than info coded in only one of those two ways

elaboration

process of connecting new material to info or ideas already in learner’s mind

enactment

learning process which individuals physically carry out tasks

extraneous cognitive load

mental effort imposed by the extraneous elements in the environment (background noise, distracting color)

free recall learning

form 3 of verbal learning- learning a list of items in any order

paired associate learning

form one verbal learning- learning of items in linked pairs so that when one member of a pair is presented, the other can be recalled

serial learning

form two verbal learning- memorization of a series in a particular order

germane cognitive load

mental effort that facilitates the connection of new info to prior learning

imagery

mental visualization of images to improve memory

inert knowledge

learned info that can be applied to a wide range of situations but whose use is limited to restricted, often artificial, applications

initial-letter strategies

strategies for learning in which initial letters of items to be memorized are made into a more easily remembered word/phrase

interference

inhibition of recall of certain info by the presence of other info in memory

intrinsic cognitive load

mental effort demanded by the difficulty/complexity of the task

keyword method

strategy for improving memory by using images to link pairs of items

learning of processing theory

explanation of memory that links recall of a stimulus to the amount of mental processing it receives

loci method

strategy for remembering lists by picturing items in familiar locations

verbal learning

learning of words (expressed in words)

massed practice

technique in which facts/skills to be learned are repeated often over a concentrated period of time

meaningful learning

mental processing of new info that relates to previously learned knowledge

metacognition

knowledge about one’s own learning/how they learn

metacognitive skills

methods for learning, studying, or solving problems

mnemonics

devices/strategies for aiding the memory

neuromyths

statements about educational implications of neuroscience that either are not yet justified or are untrue

note taking

study strategy that requires decisions about what to write

outlining

presents the main points of the material in a hierarchical format,

concept mapping

diagramming main ideas and the connections between them

pegword method

strategy for memorization in which images are used to link lists of facts to a familiar set of words/numbers

PQ4R method

preview, question, read, reflect, recite, and review material