CH 8

Growth rate, ages 2-6

About 3 inches and 4.5 lbs per year

CHildren at age 6 should be 3.5 feet tall and between 40-50 lbs

Why do children slim down in early childhood?

They lose baby weight; chubby babies were growing the way they need to. (Textbook: center of gravity moves down and legs make up about half of height by age 6)

Energy level at age 2

2-year-olds have more energy than any other age

Why does appetite decrease at ages 2-6?

Children don't grow as rapidly, so they don't need to eat as much

Snack vs. meal preference

Kids prefer snacks to larger meals; a snack doesn't have to be chips, you can give them food you'd eat for dinner

Pickiness in early childhood

Increases as kids get older (about 75% of 2-4 year-olds); common, and kids often grow out of it

Why do young children want to exert control?

It makes them feel safe; parents get frustrated when they don't understand this

Examples of control behaviors in young children

Wanting things done in a particular order, strong clothing preferences, specific bedtime rituals, strong food preferences

Why are bedtime routines important to young children?

Bedtime can be scary (dark, alone); the routine gives comfort

Letting young children choose their clothes

Within reason, it's fine; they want to start making their own choices

Myelination

Fatty layer that covers the axon. (Textbook: myelin is white matter and speeds signals from neuron to neuron)

Effects of myelination on thinking and reacting

Child can think and react more quickly; by age 6 a child can catch a ball

Effects of myelination on communication

Faster and more complex communication; vocabulary increases and kids respond much more quickly

Brain weight at age 2 and age 6 (textbook)

75% of adult weight at age 2; 90% at age 6

White matter vs. gray matter (textbook)

White matter = myelin-coated axons; gray matter = the neurons themselves

Corpus callosum (textbook)

A long, thick band of nerve fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres and allows communication between them; myelination increases in early childhood

Lateralization (textbook)

Specialization of certain functions in each side of the brain; the left side controls the right side of the body and vice versa

Prefrontal cortex

Specializes in executive functions: planning, selecting, and coordinating thoughts

Executive function

Planning, selecting, and coordinating thoughts; handled by the prefrontal cortex, which matures slowly

Impulse control

The ability to postpone or deny the immediate response to an idea or behavior; lack of it is typical in young children (textbook definition)

Perseveration

To stay stuck on one thought or action for a long time; difficulty switching tasks; typical in young children (spelled 'preservation' in the notes)

Sorting game example

Ask a child to sort objects by color or shape; shows perseveration and difficulty switching

Simon Says example

Young children have a hard time controlling impulses and following only when 'Simon says'

Marshmallow study

Looks at the ability to delay gratification (related to the prefrontal cortex); kids who waited for the reward tended to have better academic performance and social lives

Changes as the prefrontal cortex matures (textbook)

Sleep more regular, emotions more nuanced and responsive, temper tantrums subside

Gross motor skills

Large body movements such as running, climbing, jumping, and throwing

Fine motor skills

Small body movements such as pouring without spilling, using a knife and fork, zippers, and buttons

Avoidable injuries

Injuries like jumping off the bed and breaking an arm; related to impulse control and adults underestimating children's understanding

Bumps and bruises in young children

Really typical; not by themselves a sign of abuse

Injury control / harm reduction (textbook)

Practices aimed at anticipating, controlling, and preventing dangerous activities; harm can be limited if proper controls are in place

Why is 'injury control' preferred to 'accident prevention'?

'Accident' implies injury is random and unpredictable; injury control means harm can be minimized

Primary prevention (textbook)

Actions that change overall background conditions to prevent an unwanted event, e.g., laws and customs; the most effective level

Secondary prevention (textbook)

Actions that avert harm in a high-risk situation, e.g., stopping a car before it hits a pedestrian

Tertiary prevention (textbook)

Actions taken after an adverse event to reduce disability, e.g., emergency medical treatment; the most visible level

Child maltreatment (textbook)

Intentional harm to, or avoidable endangerment of, anyone under 18; includes child abuse and child neglect

Child abuse

Deliberate action that is harmful to a child's physical, emotional, or sexual well-being

Signs of child abuse (notes)

Suspicious bruises, regression (potty accidents when it hasn't happened in a while), frequent injuries, suddenly withdrawn or acting out

Regression (sign of maltreatment)

Going back to earlier behavior, such as potty accidents when it hasn't happened in a while

Child neglect

Failure to meet a child's basic physical, emotional, or educational needs

Risk factors for neglect (notes)

Caregivers struggling with their own physical or mental health issues; lack of resources, and not knowing they aren't meeting the child's needs

Most common form of maltreatment (textbook)

Neglect (about 75% of cases); neglect is often worse than abuse

Reported maltreatment (textbook)

Harm or endangerment about which someone has notified the authorities

Substantiated maltreatment (textbook)

Harm or endangerment that has been reported, investigated, and verified

Mandated reporters (textbook)

Professionals (teachers, nurses, police officers) required by law to report suspected maltreatment

Foster care (textbook)

A publicly supported system in which a maltreated child is removed from the parents' custody and entrusted to another adult or family, who is reimbursed for expenses

Kinship care (textbook)

A form of foster care in which a relative of the child, usually a grandparent, becomes the approved caregiver

Permanency planning (textbook)

An effort to find a long-term living situation that provides stability for a maltreated child and avoids repeated changes of caregiver or school

Typical size at age 6 (textbook)

At least 3.5 feet tall (over 110 cm) and 40-50 pounds (18-23 kg)

Recommended added sugar limit (textbook)

No more than 6 teaspoons per day (American Heart Association); the average child consumes about 3 times that

Baby teeth replacement (textbook)

Naturally replaced from about ages 6 to 10

Definition of childhood obesity (textbook)

Being among the heaviest 5% of children measured 50 years ago

Left-handedness then vs. now (textbook)

About 10% today vs. about 3% in 1900, reflecting greater acceptance

Accidents vs. cancer in US young children (textbook)

Almost four times as many young children die of accidents as die of cancer, the leading deadly disease

Child car-crash deaths vs. 20 years ago (textbook)

Less than half of what they were, despite more cars and more children

Breakdown of maltreatment types (textbook)

About 75% neglect, 18% physical abuse, 9% sexual abuse

Number of reported maltreatment cases, 2019 (textbook)

More than 4 million children were reported to authorities

Share of reports that are substantiated (textbook)

About one-fifth

Annual rate of substantiated maltreatment (textbook)

About 1 child in 100

Reports that are screened out (textbook)

About one-third, because they involve someone outside the agency's jurisdiction (e.g., military or Native American tribe)

Source of most maltreatment reports (textbook)

About two-thirds come from mandated reporters such as teachers and police officers

Common food allergens (textbook)

Milk, eggs, peanuts, tree nuts (such as almonds and walnuts), soy, wheat, fish, shellfish

How many children have a food allergy? (textbook)

About 6 to 8 percent

Why are younger children more likely to have food allergies? (textbook)

Many childhood food allergies are outgrown, so older children are less likely to have them

How do allergies affect nutrition? (textbook)

They make a balanced diet harder to maintain; fear of allergies should not stop nutrition or vaccination

Peanut allergy strategy (textbook)

Carefully giving an allergic child a tiny bit of peanut under medical supervision is often safe and effective; children of women who ate peanuts while pregnant were less likely to be allergic

Motor skills at age 2 (textbook)

Run without falling, climb out of crib, walk up stairs, feed self with spoon, draw spirals

Motor skills at age 3 (textbook)

Kick and throw a ball, jump with both feet, pedal a tricycle, copy simple shapes, walk down stairs, climb ladders

Motor skills at age 4 (textbook)

Catch a beach ball, use scissors, hop on either foot, feed self with fork, dress self, copy most letters, pour juice without spilling, brush teeth

Motor skills at age 5 (textbook)

Skip and gallop in rhythm, clap and sing in rhythm, copy difficult shapes and letters, climb trees, jump over things, use a knife to cut, wash face, comb hair

Motor skills at age 6 (textbook)

Draw and paint recognizable images, write simple words, read a page of print, tie shoes, catch a small ball

Gender differences in fine motor skills (textbook)

Girls are often ahead, partly from faster maturation and partly from practice (sewing cards, dressing dolls)

Why are fine motor skills harder for 2-year-olds? (textbook)

Spatial visualization and rotation are still developing and their fingers are not yet adept

Motor skills vs. social skills (textbook)

Motor skills are mastered quickly; social skills take longer (a 5-year-old may kick a ball precisely but not be a good team player)