Intellectual Revolutions: Copernicus, Darwin, and Freud

Compendium of vocabulary terms related to the key thinkers and theories of the Copernican, Darwinian, and Freudian intellectual revolutions.

Intellectual Revolution

Periods of significant transformation in thought that have profound impacts on society.

Paradigm Shift

A fundamental change in the way people view the world around them, shifting from one significant way of thinking to another.

Aristotle ($384 BCE - 322 BCE$)

One of the first philosophers to propose the geocentric model, believing Earth was the center of the universe because it was the heaviest object.

Claudius Ptolemy

A Greek astronomer and mathematician best known for "Almagest" who refined the geocentric model with a complex system of cycles.

Ptolemaic Model

The geocentric theory stating that the sun, moon, and planets all revolved around the earth, which was the prevailing view until the $16^{th}$ Century.

Nicolaus Copernicus ($1473 - 1543$)

A Polish astronomer who rediscovered the heliocentric model and published "De revolutionibus orbium coelestium."

Heliocentric Theory

The theory proposed by Copernicus that the sun was the center of the universe, and the earth and other planets revolved around it.

Retrograde Motion

The phenomenon explained by Copernicus's model where the Earth moves faster than some planets and slower than others.

Seven Axioms of the Copernican System

A set of seven points stating that Earth is not the center of the universe (only center of gravity/lunar orbit) and all spheres orbit the Sun.

Charles Darwin

An English naturalist whose voyage on HMS Beagle led to the development of the theory of evolution by natural selection.

"On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection" ($1859$)

The book published by Darwin that proposed species evolved over time through natural selection.

Natural Selection

The process in which individuals best adapted to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce.

Creationism

The belief that God created all living things to be unique and immutable.

Evolution

The theory that organisms have changed over time.

Survival of the Fittest

A process where individuals with traits better suited to their environment are more likely to pass on those traits to the next generation.

Modern Synthesis

The integration of Darwinian natural selection and Mendelian genetics that forms the basis of modern evolutionary theory.

Sigmund Freud ($1856 - 1939$)

An Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis who focused on the unconscious mind and drives.

Life Instincts (Eros)

Innate biological drives that promote survival, reproduction, and positive emotions like love and happiness.

Death Instinct (Thanatos)

Drives that promote destruction, aggression, and a desire to return to an inorganic state.

Preconscious Mind

Mental content that is not currently in consciousness but can be easily accessed with attention or memory.

Unconscious Mind

Hidden mental content and thoughts that cannot be easily brought into awareness except under extreme situations.

Id

The primitive and instinctual part of the mind that operates on the pleasure principle, seeking immediate gratification.

Ego

The rational, "executive" part of the personality that operates on the reality principle to mediate between the id, superego, and reality.

Superego

The moral and ethical part of the mind that represents internalized values, norms of society, and standards for judgment.

Defense Mechanism

An unconscious psychological strategy used by the mind to protect itself from anxiety or distress.

Psychosexual Stages

Freud's stages of development consisting of Oral ($0 - 18$ months), Anal ($18 - 36$ months), Phallic ($3 - 6$ years), Latency ($6$ to puberty), and Genital (puberty onwards).