Human Memory and Lifespan Development

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering the core cognitive, structural, and physiological concepts of human memory alongside major psychosocial, cognitive, and linguistic milestones in lifespan development.

Encoding

The process of forming a new memory code, analogous to inputting data into a computer using a keyboard and mouse.

Storage

The process of maintaining encoded information in memory over time, analogous to saving a file onto a computer or flash drive.

Retrieval

The process of recovering information that was previously stored in memory, analogous to bringing an existing file back up on a screen.

Selective Attention

Focused awareness on a narrowed range of stimuli or events, which is necessary for effective encoding because the human brain can only handle one attention-consuming task at a time.

Shallow Processing

A level of processing that focuses only on the structural or physical components of incoming information, such as noting whether a word is printed in capital letters.

Intermediate Processing

A level of processing that considers phonemic characteristics of incoming information, such as determining whether a target word rhymes with another word.

Semantic Encoding

The deepest level of processing that involves analyzing the meaning of information, such as evaluating whether a word logically and grammatically fits into a sentence.

Elaboration

The process of linking a new piece of information to existing knowledge or personal experiences, thereby enhancing semantic encoding.

Dual-Coding Theory

The theory proposing that memory is enhanced by forming both semantic and visual codes for the same information, as either code can facilitate recall.

Sensory Memory

The initial memory store that preserves incoming information in its original sensory form for only a fraction of a second, producing effects like visual afterimages.

Short-Term Memory

A limited-capacity memory store that preserves unrehearsed information for approximately $10$ to $20\,\text{s}$ before decay or interference occurs.

Rehearsal

The process of repeatedly verbalizing or thinking about information to maintain it in short-term memory beyond $20\,\text{s}$.

Chunking

The strategy of grouping individual, familiar stimuli together into larger, single meaningful units to increase the effective capacity of short-term memory.

Working Memory

Alan Baddeley's conceptualization of temporary memory that builds on short-term storage by incorporating the conscious manipulation of information.

Phonological Loop

The working memory component that processes and rehearses verbal and auditory information, including both spoken and written language.

Visuospatial Sketchpad

The component of working memory dedicated to holding and manipulating visual and spatial information.

Central Executive System

The component of working memory that directs and coordinates conscious attention among the other memory subsystems.

Episodic Buffer

The working memory component that acts as a temporary backup store and integrates information between working memory subsystems and long-term memory.

Long-Term Memory

An unlimited-capacity storage system capable of holding information over lengthy periods, potentially for an individual's entire life.

Flashbulb Memory

A vivid and detailed recollection of the circumstances in which one learned about a major, emotionally significant event, which remains subject to decay and distortion over time like regular memories.

Conceptual Hierarchy

A multilevel classification system based on common properties used to organize and structure information in memory.

Schema

An organized cluster of knowledge about a specific object or event abstracted from prior experiences.

Semantic Network

An organization of memory nodes representing concepts linked by pathways, where thinking of one concept triggers spreading activation to related concepts.

Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon

A temporary retrieval failure where a person feels certain that known information is stored in memory but cannot immediately access it.

Misinformation Effect

The phenomenon where a witness's recall of an event is altered and distorted by the subsequent introduction of misleading post-event information.

Source Monitoring

The process of making attributions and inferences regarding the true origin or source of a retrieved memory.

Source Monitoring Error

A memory error in which a recollection is mistakenly attributed to the wrong source, such as mistaking information introduced during questioning for a direct observation.

Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve

A graph documenting retention over varying intervals, showing an initial sharp decline in remembered nonsense syllables followed by a leveling off over time.

Recall

A measure of retention that requires participants to reproduce stored information independently without retrieval cues or options provided.

Recognition

A measure of retention that requires an individual to identify previously learned material from an array of presented options.

Relearning

A measure of retention based on the amount of time or effort saved when memorizing information a second time compared to the original learning trial.

Pseudo-Forgetting

The mistaken belief that one has forgotten information that was never actually learned or encoded, primarily caused by a lack of initial attention.

Retroactive Interference

The disruption of memory occurring when newly learned information impairs the ability to retain and recall previously learned information.

Proactive Interference

The disruption of memory occurring when previously learned information impairs the ability to encode or retrieve newly acquired information.

Encoding Specificity Principle

The principle stating that the retrieval effectiveness of a cue is determined by how closely it corresponds to the original memory code created during encoding.

Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) Paradigm

An experimental procedure where presenting lists of words related to an unstated target concept frequently induces false recall of that non-presented target word.

Retrograde Amnesia

The loss of memories for events that took place prior to the onset of a brain injury.

Anterograde Amnesia

The inability to form new long-term memories for events occurring after the onset of a brain injury.

Memory Consolidation

The neurobiological process mediated by the medial temporal lobe and hippocampal region whereby unstable memory traces are converted into stable long-term memories distributed across the cortex.

Declarative Memory

The memory system handling factual, explicit information such as words, definitions, dates, faces, and events.

Non-Declarative Memory

The memory system governing procedural skills, motor actions, and habits, such as riding a bicycle, which operate without conscious step-by-step recall.

Episodic Memory System

A chronological storehouse of personal experiences, containing autobiographical memories of events an individual has done, seen, and heard.

Semantic Memory System

A subdivision of declarative memory that contains general knowledge and facts that are stored independently of the temporal context in which they were learned.

Prospective Memory

The cognitive capability that allows an individual to remember to perform intended actions or obligations in the future.

Method of Loci

A mnemonic system in which an individual associates items to be remembered with specific physical locations along a familiar, mentally visualized route.

Serial Position Effect

The pattern of recall in which items located at the beginning (primacy) and end (recency) of a list are remembered significantly better than items positioned in the middle.

Development

The continuous sequence of age-related changes that unfold as an individual progresses from conception through death.

Attachment

The close emotional bond of affection that develops between an infant and their primary caregiver.

Strange Situation

A standardized research paradigm devised by Mary Ainsworth to assess the quality of infant-caregiver attachment through a series of departures, reunions, and stranger interactions.

Secure Attachment

An optimal attachment style in which an infant views the caregiver as a secure base, explores freely while they are present, shows visible distress upon separation, and quickly seeks proximity and comfort upon reunion.

Avoidant Attachment

An insecure attachment pattern where an infant appears indifferent to the caregiver's presence or absence and treats the caregiver similarly to a stranger, often linked to emotionally distant or unresponsive caregiving.

Trust versus Mistrust

Erik Erikson's first psychosocial stage (first $1.5\,\text{years}$ of life) where an infant forms a fundamental expectation of safety and predictability if their basic needs are met with consistent, loving care.

Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt

Erikson's second psychosocial stage ($18\,\text{months}$ to $3\,\text{years}$) in which toddlers seek personal control over activities like dressing and eating; excessive criticism or limitation fosters self-doubt.

Initiative versus Guilt

Erikson's third psychosocial stage (ages $3$ to $6\,\text{years}$) during which children initiate plans, ask questions, and engage peers; overcontrol can lead to pervasive guilt over desires.

Industry versus Inferiority

Erikson's fourth psychosocial stage (ages $6$ to $12\,\text{years}$) where children strive to master socially valued competencies and gain peer approval, risking feelings of inadequacy if they fail.

Identity versus Identity Confusion

Erikson's fifth psychosocial stage (ages $12$ to $18\,\text{years}$) where adolescents explore diverse roles to develop a coherent sense of self as a unique individual.

Intimacy versus Isolation

Erikson's sixth psychosocial stage (ages $19$ to $40\,\text{years}$) focused on forming deep, committed, and loving relationships versus experiencing loneliness.

Generativity versus Self-Absorption

Erikson's seventh psychosocial stage (ages $40$ to $65\,\text{years}$) centered on contributing to the welfare of future generations, family, and society rather than prioritizing only one's own needs.

Integrity versus Despair

Erikson's eighth psychosocial stage (age $65\,\text{years}$ to death) where older adults evaluate their lived life to achieve meaning and acceptance rather than lingering bitterness or resentment.

Sensorimotor Stage

Jean Piaget's first cognitive stage (birth to age $2\,\text{years}$) in which infants build their understanding of the world through direct sensory interactions and physical manipulations of objects.

Preoperational Stage

Piaget's second cognitive stage (ages $2$ to $7\,\text{years}$) characterized by rapid advances in symbolic thought, accompanied by reasoning flaws such as egocentrism and lack of conservation.

Conservation

The cognitive understanding that physical quantities remain identical despite changes in their outward spatial arrangement or visual shape.

Centration

The tendency of preoperational children to focus on only one salient dimension of an object or problem while neglecting other equally critical dimensions.

Concrete Operational Stage

Piaget's third cognitive stage (ages $7$ to $11\,\text{years}$) where children master conservation and apply reversible mental operations, though successful reasoning still requires concrete objects and events.

Formal Operational Stage

Piaget's final cognitive stage (beginning around early adolescence) marked by the capacity for abstract, hypothetical reasoning and systematic hypothesis testing.

Fast Mapping

The developmental process by which children map a new spoken word onto an underlying concept after only one or a few exposures.

Under-Extension

A language error where a child uses a general word to refer to an overly narrow, restricted subset of items, such as applying 'doggie' solely to the family pet.

Overextension

A language error in which a child uses a specific word to describe a broader class of objects than intended by its meaning, such as calling all round objects 'ball'.

Over-Regularization

A grammatical error in language acquisition where a child incorrectly applies regular syntactic rules to irregular words, producing forms such as 'goed' or 'eated'.

Pre-Conventional Level

Lawrence Kohlberg's initial level of moral reasoning where judgments of right and wrong are determined by external consequences, such as punishment and reward.

Conventional Level

Kohlberg's intermediate level of moral reasoning where rules and societal laws are internalized and upheld rigidly to maintain social order.

Post-Conventional Level

Kohlberg's highest level of moral reasoning where moral decisions are governed by internally derived personal ethical principles emphasizing justice, equality, and human rights.

Emerging Adulthood

A transitional period between adolescence and adulthood (spanning roughly ages $18$ to $25$ or $29\,\text{years}$) characterized by prolonged identity exploration and delayed financial independence.

Dementia

An abnormal syndrome of progressive deterioration in memory, intellect, and cognitive function that severely disrupts activities of daily living.

Alzheimer's Disease

A progressive neurodegenerative disease marked by severe structural deterioration starting in the hippocampal region, presenting with early forgetting of daily routines and newly acquired information.