Psych 180 midterm

On average, adolescence means

● More conflict with parents

● More mood disruptions

● More risk behavior

ways to time adolescence

Biological, social, cognitive, occupational, educational, age, cultural

Synaptic pruning:

More specialized; use it or lose it

Myelination

More efficient

Neurons

cells of the

nervous system, including

the brain

Synapse

the space between

two neurons, where neurons

use chemical and electrical

signals to communicate with

each other

Synaptic pruning

the process

of removing synapses, or

brain connections; reducing

gray matter. More specialized

Myelin

a substance that

wraps around part of the

neuron to help neurons

communicate more

efficiently with each other;

white matter

Myelination

the process

of adding myelin to

neurons

Synaptogenesis

Overproduction of neurons just before puberty

Neurotransmitters

Changes in activity involving chemical signalling between

neurons

which parts of brain develop first vs last?

1) sensorimotor cortex

2) parietal and temporal association complex

3) prefrontal cortex

subcortical

regions to refer to

reward-processing

Selectivity Theories

Individuals select which messages fit their moods, needs,

desires

Only what we select can influence us

● Focus on what/why users choose specific media (rather than

how the media affects users)

2 types of selectivity theories

Uses & gratification theory: We consciously, rationally

make selections

Selective exposure theory: We are not fully aware of

our motives when selecting media

Transactionality Theories

● Users make selective media choices

● These choices change the user

● The changes can then impact media use

● Which then changes the user… which then changes media

use…

● Transactions: reciprocal (bidirectional) relationship between

media and user

Conditionality Theories

Media effects depend (are conditional upon) the media

user. Characteristics of the user affect

○ What media they use

○ How they respond to/are affected by the media

Differential susceptibility to media effects

model

Media effects are conditional upon:

Dispositional variables: attitudes, beliefs, moods, values

Developmental variables:

Social variables:

Differential susceptibility to media effects

model. Media effects are indirect and can be mediated by

Cognitive response state: Attention paid, effort invested to

understand

○ Emotional response state: Emotional responses, including

empathy and sympathy

○ Excitative response state: Physiological arousal (e.g.

sympathetic nervous system)

Transactional:

Interactions & effects between media

and user

Affordance:

The possibilities offered (afforded) by

objects, situations, experiences, etc.

Transactional affordance theory of social

media uses (3) Dr. Valkenburg

1. Social media users create their own contexts, which

shapes their experiences with media and effects of

media

2. Social media directly impacts users, making

transactions more likely than mass media

3. Social media experiences vary by individual

Social media effects are NOT solely driven by the platforms

or content creators

Challenges for studying adolescent

technology/social media use (5)

1) fluid landscape

2) accuracy

3) access

4) privacy concerns

5) massive amounts of data

Qualitative:

interviews/focus groups

case studies

observational studies

Quantitative:

experimental

Questionnaires

SOME observational studies

Behavioral Paradigms (also called behavioral tasks):

artificial tasks researchers design to elicit and measure specific behavior of interest.

N-back = MEMORY

STROOP TEST = COGNITIVE CONTROL

• Not questionnaires or changing everyday behaviors

Descriptive

Describes study sample without creating change

Developmental study designs (2)

1) cross-sectional

Sample different ages across a population

2) Longitudinal

Study same participant sample at multiple points in time

Biases/things to remember abt research

Western/educated/industrialized/rich/democratic

measures, statistical analysis, lab vs everyday behavior, ecological validity

Scientific consensus with meta analysis

systematic analysis of all currently published studies on a topic

statistical techniques aggregate findings and calculate overall effect

Ecological systems theory (5)

Microsystem: direct interactions w/ individual (work, school, friends, family, neighbors)

Mesosystem: interactions btwn those in microsystem

Exosystem: indirect influences on individual (gov, parents friends, extended family, MASS MEDIA)

Macrosystem: broader systems that influence all contexts (social norms, economic system, politics, culture)

Chronosystem: time and historical contexts (time)

which theory and meaning applies to ecological systems theory?

transactional affordance theory of social media use. Social media may have DIRECT influences on adolescents through transactional and intentional social media use

Mirroring

Online interactions reflect offline interactions

• Social status, behavior etc are preserved across domains

Transformative

online contexts transform peer interactions

New interactions possible

Online-friends serve diff. purpose than offline friends

Online peer interactions are… (8)

Asynchronous

Public

Cue absent

Available

Permanent

Visual

Quantifiable

Algorithm

Consequences of online dimensions

• frequent and immediate

• heightened intensity and demand

• tonal differences

• brand new behaviors (transformation)

how are friendships in adolescence different? (4)

biological changes, social changes, cognitive changes, complex/intimate/important friendships

Homophily and the 2 types

We are friends with people like us.

Selection: we choose friends who are like us

Socialization: as we spend more time socializing with friends, we become more similar to them

Social integration negatively correlates with

blood pressure

how do teens make friends? one difference between online and offline

computer algorithm

Online interactions may inhibit skill

development for who?

socially anxious youth have negative correlation btwn social media use and social skills

Adolescent time spent online supplements rather than ______time spent with friends in person

replaces

Maladaptive (dark) friendship behaviors (3)

co-rumination

• increased depression

• friendship closeness

• prolonged and unproductive negative convos

excessive reassurance seeking

• feedback loop —> rejection or depression

social comparison

• upward vs downward - can be positive and negative both

how to measure likeability popularity? (4)

• self report

• parent/teacher report

• observation

• peer report!

  • sociometric status nominations

accepted children are

supportive, cooperative, defensive, calm, independent, attractie, competent

rejected children are (2 types)

Rejected aggressive

• aggressive

• disruptive

• delinquent in adolescence

Rejected-withdrawn

• timid

• bullied

• negative actions and emotions

Neglected children are

not noticed, less sociable, back away from conflict

Controversial children are

accepted and rejected

• social

• group leaders

• arrogant/snobby

Sociometric nominations: Majority bias

Likability and nominations differ if you’re in a minority group

less likely to be nominated

withint group is different than outside of group

when does popularity emerge? and why

Adolescence.

• social status concern

• Neural and psychological changes —> reward and puberty

• cultural changes - independence and freedom

ranking of how popular kids are viewed most to least significant

1) Controversial

2) Accepted

3) Average

5) Rejected

6) Neglected

What differs between likeability and popularity?

non VS aggressive

power aggressive VS polite and patient

academic achievement and social problem solving VS status seeking, prestige, and access to resources

overall appearance VS ALSO body maturity

both are goodlooking

why is there such low correlation btwn likeability and popularity for teen boys vs teen girls? (2)

1) popular girls engage in aggression - physical or relational

2) Popular boys and girls engage in aggressive behaviors but only girls are less likeable for it

How does social media impact status related behavior?

1) More social comparison

2) Pressure to accrue numerical example of status

3) Status seeking behavior

4) FOMO

5) Careful curation of image

digital status seeking risk lonitudinally

increased health risk behaviors over time

Externalizing symptoms

• Delinquency

• Vandalism

• Aggression

Internalizing symptoms

• Depression

• Self injury

• Suicide ideation

Health risk behaviors

• cig, alc, drug use, sexual behavior, weight concerns behaviors

Academic outcomes

• academic motivation

• school performance

3 ways we are influenced by peers

direct peer pressure: act in a certain way through direct pressure

deviancy training: antisocial thoughts and behaviors are reinforced by peer acceptance

perception of social norms: how we think most ppl think or behave

Resistance to peer influence ___ ____ with age

linearly increases

which gender has greater resistance to peer influence with age?

girls

positive peer influence timeline

negative—> gets ignored —> does something normative —> encouraged —> teen continues normative behavior

encouraging rule breaking leads to delinquency later on

descriptive norms (and example)

estimations of others’ behaviors. What we think ppl do based on observation!

• teenager exposure to alcohol on social media

Injunctive norms:

Estimation of others’ attitudes/morals. what we think ppl approve/disapprove of based on inference

false-consensus effect - think classroom

overestimate how many ppl share our beliefs and behavioral tendencies

• false assumption that different responses are deviant or rare

Pluralistic ignorance - think politics

Majority privately disagrees but does not go w/ public in their views

Everyone goes along with what they incorrectly think is majority view

• emperor has no clothes

Injunctive norms predict _____ behavior, descriptive norms ___ ___

drinking, DO NOT

What does this mean?seeing alc on social media doesn’t make teens drink - whether friends APPROVE of drinking predicts drinking behavior

MRI:

magnetic resonance imaging

• captures images of body and brain using large and powerful magnet

Types of MRI modalities (2)

1) structural (sMRI): captures brain structure

2) Functional (fMRI): captures brain function

how does functional MRI work?

provides proxy of neural activity

• neurons firing —> consume more oxygen —> detectable magnetic signal

what is subtraction/contraction approach for categorical variables:

where is brain activity greater for one variable compared to another?

• fMRI

• Alternate Tasks: A person switches back and forth between two tasks over time (e.g., Task A = looking at faces, Task B = looking at shapes).

• Measure Brain Activity: Researchers measure average brain activity during Task A and average brain activity during Task B.

• Subtract (A – B): They subtract the activity of Task B from Task A to remove background brain activity shared by both tasks.

• needs careful controls

Parametric model for continuous variables - where does brain activity correlate w/ parameter of interest?

how brain activity rises and falls smoothly alongside changing numbers

• does brin region activity change in proportion to a rating or intensity

subtraction/contrast can either be

task based or group contrast

1) how do we interpret more vs less brain activity?

More brain activity is NOT smarter. More activity = less efficient.

2) how do we use fMRI to understand the full complexity of the human brain?

keep things simple

How do we be careful abt reverse inference? (what is it?)

RI is a logical fallacy. It assumes brain activity alone is cogntive process. INCORRECTLY assumes brain activity in a region can only be associated w/ 1 cognitive process!

What are the rewards networks? - social media

VS, VMPFC

• NAcc

• Dorsal striatum

  • caudate

  • putamen

Self-referential brain networks - social media

PCC, MPFC

Mentalizing brain networks - social media

TPJ, ATP, IFG, PCC, DMPFC

Striatum (Nucleus Accumbens) tracks…

reward value

Adolescence is a sensitive time for…

reward processing

• hyper responsive

what rewards do adolescents seek? (3)

1) Hunger for human connectedness - social interactions and belonging

2) Appetite for adventure- fun, adventure, risk

3) Desire for data - learning also from peers

Classic conditioning

neutral stimulus produces conditioned response

• now is conditioned stimulus

Classic vs operant conditioning

classic:

• associate involuntary response w/ stimulus

• cue (enviornment) —> response (animal)

• reflexive, automatic, unconscious

Operant:

• associate voluntary behavior and consequence

• Action (animal) —> outcome (enviornment)

• purposeful, intentional, conscious

gain anticipation > ____ ____

gain outcome

Ratio schedules produce much higher response rates than ______ and produce the most consistent behavior with no pauses.

interval schedules (steeper lines),

variable schedules

which 5 core behaviors on social media drive neural reward processing and social cognition?

1) broadcast - share info abt yourself to audience

2) receive feedback - get likes, comments, notifications

3) observe - lurk/scroll

4) provide feedback - like, comment, interact w/ content

5) compare - evaluate yourself socially based on metrics or visuals

When does the Nucleus Accumbens activate?

when you share info abt yourself, activates reward pathways

• when there is an audience for info shared

• people are willing to forgo small sums of money in order to share abt themselves

How does the brain decide whether to share media based on its reward/value? (2)

• self-relevance

• social relevance

observing attractive faces and winning money activates which reward processing region of brain?

vmPFC

VS during social comparision

overlap between downward social comparison and high money reward

reward-related neural activity is modulated by …

SOCIAL COMPARISON. positively correlates w/ social media use

curiosity triggers the _____

reward system and information seeking regions, dorsal striatum - IFG

Social cognition definition and 6 parts

ability to make sense of the world through processing signals generated

1) face processing

2) mentalizing

3) theory of mind

4) perspective taking

5) complex social emotions

6) social decision-making

advantages of social congnition - 4

1) understanding others

2) empathy, prosocial behaviors

3) navigate complex interpersonal decisions

4) understand social norms

DISadvantages of social congition

1) self-conciousness/anxiety

2) imaginary audience

3) awarness of peer evaluation

4) peer inlfuence/conformity

belief of being watched triggers the … most at age …

medial prefrontal cortex

Adolescence - 15-18

behavior rehearsal on facebook leads to …

imaginary audience

what is imaginary audience effect linked to? (3)

• social media use

• self esteem

• social anxiety