Cognition - Chapter 7

What is the definition of memory encoding?

the process of acquiring information and transferring it into LTM

What is the definition of memory retrieval?

the process of bringing information out of LTM into conscious working memory

How does '“coding” differ from “encoding” in memory terminology?

coding = the form in which information is represented (visual, auditory, semantic)

encoding = process of getting information into LTM

Repeating a phrase over and over without considering its meaning or connecting it to other information is called ____ rehearsal

maintenance

What is elaborative rehearsal?

a rehearsal method that involves thinking about the meaning of information and making connections to previously stored knowledge

Why does maintenance rehearsal generally result in poor long-term memory retention compared to elaborative rehearsal?

because maintenance rehearsal involves little to no focus on meaning or connection-making, leading to minimal long-term encoding.

According to research (e.g., Dunlosky et al., 2013), what are two of the most popular yet ineffective study techniques used by students?

1. highlighting text/notes

2. rereading text/notes

Levels of processing theory states that memory performance depends primarily on what factor during encoding?

the depth to which information is processed or programmed into the mind

How does shallow processing differ from deep processing in levels of processing theory?

shallow processing = focuses on physical features (print type or sound) with little attention to meaning

deep processing = involves close attention to meaning and forming connections

What did Craik and Tulving's experiment demonstrate regarding levels of processing?

memory retrieval was significantly better following deep semantic processing compared to shallow physical processing

What is the self-reference effect in memory encoding?

the phenomenon where memory for material is improved if you related the information to yourself

What is the generation effect in memory encoding?

generating material yourself yields better memory retention than passively receiving or reading it

How does organizing information during encoding affect LTM retrieval?

it enhances retrieval by creating a structured framework and clear retrieval cues for stores material

How does evaluating material in terms of its survival value impact memory encoding?

relating words or concepts to survival scenarios leads to enhanced LTM encoding and superior recall performance

The testing effect (retrieval practice effect) refers to the finding that memory is enhanced by doing what?

actively practicing retrieval (such as testing oneself) rather than simply re-reading the material

What are the 5 memory principles for effective studying derived from memory research?

1. elaborate

2. generate and test

3. organize

4. take breaks (spacing effect)

5. avoid illusions of learning

Why does taking notes by hand often lead to better exam performance than taking notes on a laptop?

handwriting forces deeper processing through summarizing and translating concepts, whereas laptop note-taking often leads to mindless verbatim transcription

What is a retrieval cue?

a prompt, context, or piece of associated information that helps stimulate or guide the retrieval of memories from LTM

How does cued recall differ from free recall?

free recall requires reproducing information without external hints, while cued recall provides prompts or categories to facilitate retrieval

What is the core principle of encoding specificity?

we encode information together with its context; matching retrieval to encoding enhances recall

In Godden and Baddeley’s (1975) diving experiment, under what testing condition did divers recall the most words?

when the testing environment matched the encoding environment

What does state-dependent learning predict regarding memory retrieval?

memory performance is highest when a person’s internal psychological or physiological state during retrieval matched their state during encoding

Eich’s mood experiment demonstrated state-dependent learning by showing that recall was best when participants were in what state?

when their internal mood at testing matched their mood during encoding

What is transfer-appropriate processing?

the finding that memory retrieval is enhanced when the type of cognitive task/processing during retrieval matched the type during encoding

In Morris et al.’s experiment on transfer-appropriate processing, why did rhyming encoding lead to better performance on a rhyming test than semantic encoding did?

because the specific type of processing during acquisition (focus on sound/rhyme) matched the specific type of processing required at retrieval

When learning word-for-word material, why is it beneficial to learn the semantic meaning first?

provides a structured conceptual framework that makes storing and retrieving specific detailed words easier

What is memory consolidation?

the biological process that transforms new memories from a fragile, disruptable state into a permanent, durable state

In Müller and Pilzecker's (1900) experiment, why did the 'delay' group perform better on list recall (48%) than the 'immediate' group (28%)?

immediately learning a second list interrupted the consolidation of the first list in the “immediate” group

What structural focus distinguishes synaptic consolidation from systems consolidation?

synaptic consolidation involves structural changes at the synapse, whereas systems consolidation involves the reorganization of neural circuits across the brain

What is the typical timeframe for synaptic consolidation compared to systems consolidation?

synaptic consolidation takes minutes to hours; systems consolidation takes months or even years

Do synaptic consolidation and systems consolidation occur sequentially or simultaneously?

they occur simultaneously at different speeds and different levels of the nervous system

Donald Hebb proposed that memory storage at the synaptic level is accompanied by structural changes resulting in _____

enhanced nerve firing (long-term potentiation)

What is Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)?

increased synaptic firing efficiency between neurons resulting from repeated stimulation

According to the standard model of consolidation, what is the role of the hippocampus over time as a memory becomes fully consolidated?

the hippocampus is crucial for retrieval during early consolidation, but as cortical connections strengthen, the hippocampus is no longer required for retrieval

How does the multiple trace model of consolidation differ from the standard model regarding remote episodic memories?

the multiple trace model states that the hippocampus remains active and involved during the retrieval of remote episodic memories, no matter how old

How does sleep impact memory consolidation?

sleep significantly facilitates memory consolidation by reducing potential interference and triggering physiological consolidation processes

In Wilhelm’s experiment on sleep and consolidation, which group showed greater memory improvement after sleep?

the group that expected to be tested on the material after sleeping

What is memory reconsolidation?

the process where retrieved/reactivated memories become temporarily fragile and must be consolidated again, opening a window to modify or update them

In Nader’s rat experiment, what happened when anisomycin (a protein synthesis inhibitor) was injected after reactivating a conditioned fear memory?

the reactivated fear memory was eliminated because reconsolidation was blocked

In Hupbach's behavioral experiment with human participants, how did reminding the 'reminder group' of List A prior to learning List B affect List A recall on Friday?

participants incorrectly included items from List B into List A, indicating that List A's memory was updated or modified upon reactivation

According to the Temporal Context Model (TCM), why did participants in Hupbach's reminder group intrude List B items into List A recall?

list B items became associated with the reinstated environmental context of List A, causing dual recall without changing List A's actual stored content

What is the primary difference in assumptions between the reconsolidation hypothesis and the Temporal Context Model (TCM) regarding modified memories?

reconsolidation assumes the underlying stored memory is altered; TCM assumes the stored memory remains unchanged but becomes linked to a shared context

What potential clinical application stems from research on memory reconsolidation?

developing reconsolidation therapies to alter, weaken, or eliminate traumatic memories in conditions like Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

Why is it difficult to conclusively determine whether the reconsolidation hypothesis or the Temporal Context Model is correct in cognitive psychology?

internal mental operations cannot be observed directly; they must be inferred from behavioral or physiological results that often fit both models

What is a story mnemonic?

a memory technique that links arbitrary items or phrases into a cohesive, meaningful narrative to enhance elaborative rehearsal and recall

What famous case study in cognitive psychology demonstrated that living strictly 'in the moment' due to LTM impairment prevents independent functioning?

Patient H.M., who could not remember events occurring more than 30 to 60 seconds prior

In Craik and Tulving's experiment, which type of processing question yielded the highest recognition percentage: visual, auditory/rhyme, or deep semantic?

deep semantic questions

True or False: Rereading material creates an illusion of learning because it increases fluency, which can be mistaken for mastery.

true

What term describes the experience where information is stored in long-term memory but cannot be accessed at a specific moment?

retrieval failure

In Grant's study environment experiment, students retrieved information best when their testing noise level (quiet vs. noisy) matched their _____ noise level

encoding (studying)