Creation of Israel, 1948 War, Suez crisis

Founding of Israel

• Date:​ 14 May 1948, 4 p.m. David Ben-Gurion proclaimed the foundation of the state of Israel (ceremony lasted only 32 minutes).

• Recognition:​ USA immediately recognized the new state; USSR soon did the same.

• British Mandate:​ Ended at midnight on 14/15 May 1948. Last British soldier departed 15 May 1948.

• Invasion:​ Same day (15 May 1948), armies of five Arab states (Egypt, Syria, Transjordan, Lebanon, Iraq) invaded to destroy Israel. Civil war became an international war.

Phase 1: May–June 1948

• Israel struggled for survival. Only 1 in 3 troops had weapons; only 5 field guns. Arab forces had 152.

• Attacks:​ Arab Legion (Transjordan) occupied West Bank and captured east Jerusalem (Old City with Wailing Wall). Iraq forces invaded north. Egyptians attacked south.

• Defence of Yad Mordechai:​ Isolated communal farm attacked by 2,500 Egyptian troops. 92 women/children evacuated. Remaining 110 settlers (20 women, 40 Palmach) delayed Egyptians for 5 days. Delay gave Israeli forces time to organise defensive line preventing Egyptians taking Tel Aviv.

Truce

• 11 June: UN negotiator Count Bernadotte arranged truce for a month. Without it, Israel might not have survived.

• Israel used truce to reorganise military structure (one army command called David Ben-Gurion in Tel Aviv). Embargo on weapons was ignored, they buy weapons from Czechoslovakia (30,000 rifles, 4,500 machine guns, 47 million rounds of ammunition, 54 aircraft).

Phase 2: July 1948

Two days before truce ended, Israel forces went on offensive. Surprise troops occupied Arab towns of Lydda and Ramlah; expelled Arab populations (the second truce was arranged by the UN, which lasted for 3 months).

Phase 3: October 1948–July 1949

• Israel broke truce to gain land before peace settlement. Captured Galilee from Lebanese; retook Negev Desert; pushed Egyptian forces back into Sinai Desert.

• Armistices:​ Signed with Egypt (February), Lebanon (March), Transjordan (April), Syria (July). Only Iraq refused to sign.

Timeline & Key Events

1948:​ 700,000 Palestinians flee or are expelled before and during the 1948–49 war.

1949:​ Creation of UNRWA to help Palestinian refugees.

1949–51:​ 700,000 Jews migrate to Israel.

1950:​ The Law of Return passed.

1950–55:​ Increasing tension between Israel and Egypt.

Refugee Status

• 1948 war was al-Nakba ("the catastrophe"). About 900,000 Arabs lived in areas that became Israel; 700,000 fled before/during the war. By the end, 700,000 Palestinians were landless refugees. Areas were meant to be the Arab state was taken over by Israel, Egypt, and Jordan.

Palestinian View

• Argued right to return to their lands.

• Stated they did not choose to leave

• were not told to by Arab leaders

• Israeli aim was an Israel without Palestinians

• Israel achieved goal by using violence, threats, and deliberately causing panic.

Israeli View

• Did not create problem; war started by Arabs who rejected Israel's existence on 15 May 1948.

• Palestinians were not forced to leave, they choose to leave or told by leaders to go.

• Arab leaders promised quick victory and triumphal return, who also made up stories of atrocities to frighten them.

• Palestinians were not permitted to return when the war ended, because they would threaten the security inside Israel.

Consequences

• Palestinians no longer had land of their own; most remained refugees ever since. About 100,000 middle-class Palestinians fled before war and living elsewhere.

• UNRWA: the UN relief and works agency for Palestinian refugees who moved to neighboring states.

Arab League

Told members to deny citizenship to Palestinian refugees to keep identity and protect "right to return" to homeland. Meant refugees found it hard to travel/apply for jobs locally. Only Jordan ignored instruction and granted citizenship to all Palestinians.

Living Conditions

Gaza strip (45 km long, 8 km wide). Original population ~20,000. Arrival of 190,000 refugees resulted in overcrowding, water shortages, poor sanitation, collapse of local economy. Many refugees tried to return home to collect possessions/harvest crops; about 16,000 cases of infiltration occurred by 1953, mostly from Jordanian territory. Risky because Israeli troops were increasingly demoralised

Growth of Resistance

Feelings of bewilderment/shock turned to bitter hatred. Palestinians began infiltrations aimed at Israelis. Between 1950–1953: 153 Israelis died, 202 injured as result of Fedayeen actions. Israel retaliated fiercely. October 1953: Israeli forces attacked Qibya in West Bank, killing 69 villagers and destroying 45 houses, as reprisal for deaths of three Israelis. To stop cycle of violence, Jordanian authorities tried to prevent infiltrations from West Bank in 1954. However, infiltrations continued from Gaza (under Egyptian control).

Impact on Israelis

they see the war as extraordinary victory and triumph. 6,000 Israelis died. New state survived. Kept land given under UN Partition Plan; captured 50% additional land; had access to Jerusalem which was declared the capital of Israel.

The Law of Return, 1950

New state had very small population; almost doubled to 1.5 million over next 3 years due to large numbers of Jewish immigrants.

First group from Europe (Holocaust survivors from camps in Germany); many more Eastern Europeans seeking life away from Soviet control.

Large numbers then came from Arab countries where growing anti-Semitism after 1948–49 war made life dangerous.

Knesset (Israeli parliament) passed Law of Return in July 1950: any Jew in world had right to come to Israel and become citizen.

Immigration & Operations

Operation Magic Carpet (1949–50):​ US and British aircraft airlifted 47,000 Yemenite Jews to Israel following violent anti-Semitic riots.

Zionism was capital offence (punishable by death) in 1950 Iraq; Jews sacked from government jobs; panic when Jewish targets bombed. Over 120,000 (almost entire Jewish population) asked to leave; airlifted in Operation Ezra and Nehemiah, 1950–51.

The Israeli Defence Forces (IDF)

Ben-Gurion transformed Haganah into IDF. Small core of professional soldiers; majority were 'reserves'.

From 1949: every non-Arab 18-year-old male served 30 months; females served 18 months (conscription).

Conscript troops formed majority of IDF; ex-conscripts became reserve forces, expected to train 1 month yearly until age 55.

Defence received largest share of government budget; by 1956: 35% of all government spending on defence.

Assimilation of Immigrants

Challenge absorbing immigrants from diverse backgrounds: many arrived with no money, in shock, some could not read/write, spoke different languages.

Harsh conditions: temporary 'tent cities' set up; 350 people per shower, 56 per toilet, high unemployment.

Israel became divided society: 'Old Jews' (pre-1949 European settlers, Ashkenazi) dominated politics, military, employment. 'New Jews' (Mizrahi/Sephardic from Arab states/North Africa) felt excluded; riots in 1959 in Haifa slum suburbs.

Tactics to assimilate:

Judaism (common ground): religious leaders given high profile; decided who was Jewish for Law of Return.

Students taught in Hebrew.

Communal farms (kibbutzim) established where everyone worked together.

Jewish history used to give unity/determination.

IDF united diverse people into one nation (everyone performed military service).

Israel's Relations with Egypt

Arab League boycotted all trade with Israel and foreign companies trading with Israel.

Egypt searched all ships using Suez Canal, confiscating items bought at Israeli port or bound for Israel's armed forces.

From 1951: Egypt made life difficult for ships heading up Gulf of Aqaba to Israel's southern port of Eilat.

Straits of Tiran (entrance to gulf) dominated by Egyptian town of Sharm el Sheikh, making blockade easy.

Egypt controlled Gaza but did nothing to stop Fedayeen raids on Israel from there.

Relations worsened when weak King Farouk replaced by dynamic new leader, Nasser.

Arab Forces

Did not send entire armies; over-confident thought Israel easily defeated. About 35,000 Jews attacked Israel; total Arab armies about 20,000–25,000. By December 1945, Israeli forces grew to 108,000 (double Arab forces).

Experience

Many Haganah members served with British forces in WWII; Irgun/Lehi had experience fighting British. Israel helped by ~5,000 foreign volunteers. however on the Arab side, only Transjordan had effective army (Arab Legion).

Truce

First UN truce is crucial. Israel dangerously short of weapons; but Arabs did little. Israel regrouped, increased forces, bought weapons from Czechoslovakia.

Tactics

Israeli tactics more effective. Attacks co-ordinated centrally; troops moved quickly. Arab armies unco-ordinated; failed to communicate. Arab League had own reasons for fighting; Transjordanian Arab Legion ordered to occupy West Bank (given to Arabs) not attack lands given to Israel which was not popular with other Arab states. Lack of agreed plan worked to Israel's advantage.

Fighting Spirit

• Israelis' exceptionally determined fighting spirit. Defeat meant destruction of new country; fighting for lives and all Jews who died in Holocaust.

King Farouk

Reputation as a playboy; became king at 16 (1936); owned palaces, cars, 1,000 suits. 80,000 British troops still guarding Suez Canal; forced to abdicate by disillusioned army officers after 1948-49 war defeat.

Nasser and Egypt's Leadership

• 1954: Colonel Gamal Abdel Nasser took over government.

• Three Dreams:​ Complete independence (free Egypt from British 'occupation'); Prosperity (improve lives of Egyptians); Pride (Arabs proud, believe in united strength).

• Achieved first ambition quickly (Britain agreed troops would withdraw from Suez Canal zone if no other country attacked).

• Internal reform: redistribute land to peasants; build schools/hospitals; planned to dam River Nile at Aswan for flood control, hydroelectric power, and irrigation.

• Asked USA and Britain for loan and talks were opened. But the west started to have concerns. Nasser wants to lead and defend the Arab world while stay independent and neutral in the Cold War; he wanted to buy US weapons was refused as he might use the weapons against Israel.

• Nasser's radio broadcasts heard by millions of Arabs; became champion of Arab nationalism.

Impact of Israeli Attacks on Gaza, 1955

• February 1955: IDF raid killed 36 Egyptians in Gaza. IDF claimed retaliation for killing of cyclist in Israel by militants.

• Nasser negotiated $300 million (Egyptian cotton) arms deal with Czechoslovakia: 100 self-propelled guns, 50 armoured personnel carriers, 300 tanks, 200 MIG-15 fighters, 50 bombers.

• August 1955: Fedayeen raid killed 11 Israelis; IDF retaliatory attack on Gaza killed 58 Egyptian soldiers.

• Nasser imposed total blockade through Straits of Tiran.

• Backfired:​ Israel decided war was inevitable and better fought sooner; November 1955: USA and Britain offered $270 million loan for Aswan Dam (hoping to win Egypt back from an alliance with the USSR); July 1956: offer suddenly withdrawn (hoped Nasser would rethink Soviet alliance).

Nasser Nationalises Suez Canal

• Nasser's motives: Response to loan withdrawal He promised to compensate shareholders and fund Aswan Dam using the toll money from the canal. Other motives: lead Arab world, promote Arab nationalism, gain full independence, break free from British colonialism, improve Egypt's economy.

• Reaction: Britain and France condemned it as illegal and seen it as a major threat in the Middle East.

The Sevres Agreement

• Secret meeting on 22 October 1956 in France. David Ben-Gurion and Moshe Dayan (head of IDF) met French and British ministers.

• Plan: Israel would attack Egypt, and Britain and France would invade Egypt while pretending to keep peace. Israel would withdraw after that. Britain and France would regain control of Suez Canal and Israel would assure its security the ability to trade. All three hoped to overthrow Nasser.

The Suez Crisis, 1956 (Invasion)

• 29 October 1956: Israel invaded Egypt, occupied Gaza, dropped paratroopers into Sinai, neared Suez Canal. 1,000 men in 200 vehicles set off for Sharm el Sheikh.

• 30 October: Britain and France ordered Israel and Egypt to withdraw 10 km each side of Canal. Israel accepted; Egypt refused.

• early November: Britain and France launched an airborne attack, defeating Egyptian forces towards the Suez Canal, while Israel took control of Sharm and Sheikh and ended the blockade.

Results of the Suez Crisis

• Israel:​ Short campaign success; gained no land (withdrew from Sinai/Gaza); achieved security and ability to trade; Egypt's military objectives destroyed; Fedayeen bases destroyed; UN peacekeepers sent to Sinai; morale higher than ever; IDF showed it could beat Arab state and capture weapons.

• Britain and France:​ Humiliating disaster; failed to remove Nasser or regain Canal; international reputation damaged; seen as Israel's allies and lost influence in Middle East; deep political divisions; Prime Minister Anthony Eden resigned.

• Superpowers:​ USSR gained firm ally in Egypt (looked to for protection). USA emerged as important Western power.

• Egypt:​ Nasser gained from crisis; complete control of Suez Canal (sunk ships removed in 6 months); USSR agreed to finance Aswan Dam; rebuilt armed forces; life difficult for Egypt's 40,000 Jews; Nasser seized Jewish businesses, banned Jews from working as teachers/lawyers/doctors; about 25,000 Jews migrated.

Nasser's Gains and Arab Nationalism

• 1958: Syria invited Nasser as the president of the newly formed United Arab Republic (UAR). Some Arabs hoped UAR would unite North Africa and Middle East.

• UAR experiment did not last; Syria withdrew in 1961.

• Nasser focused on internal reforms while Syria determined to destroy Israel.

Attitudes of the Superpowers

• USSR and USA involved in Cold War; USSR increased influence middle east.

• USSR stood by Egypt (allowed ally Czechoslovakia to supply Soviet weapons).

• USA criticised attack; called UN Security Council meeting to condemn attack. USSR gained influence as Western allies quarrelled.