Lab Practical 1

Sagittal section

divides into left & right parts

Midsagittal section

left and right parts are divided equally

Frontal (coronal) section

divides into front and back parts

Transverse section

divides into top and bottom parts

Superior

toward upper part of structure of body; above

Anterior

toward front side of body; in front of

Medial

toward midline; inner side

Proximal

close to point of attachment of limb

Superficial

towards body surface; external

Ipsilateral

structures on same side of body

Inferior

structure of body; below

Posterior

toward back side of body; behind of

Lateral

away from midline; outer side

Distal

farther from point of attachment of limb

Deep

away from body surface; internal

Contralateral

structures on opposite sides of body

Anatomical left & right

patient’s POV of their own left and right—NOT what you see.

Metric conversions: Kilo- is

x 10³

Metric conversions: Hecto- is

x 10²

Metric conversions: Deca- is

$$\cdot10^1$$

Metric conversions: Deci- is

x10^-1

Metric conversions: Centi- is

x 10^-2

Metric conversions: Mili- is

x 10^-3

Metric conversions: Micro- is

x 10^-6

Metric conversions: Nano- is

x 10^-9

Metric conversions: Pico- is

10^-12

Where is blood found? What is blood tissue classified as? How much blood is in a human?

Blood is found in blood vessels. Blood is classified as fluid connective tissue. Adults have 4.5-5.5 ? of blood.

What are the 3 components of blood?

erythrocytes, plasma, buffy coat (platelets + leukocytes)

What type of cells are in leukocytes?

Neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, lymphocytes, monocytes.

How many RBCs/uL of blood? How much percentage?

4 - 6 million. ~45%

How many WBCs/uL of blood?

4,800 - 10,800

How many neutrophils/uL of blood? How much percentage?

3,000 - 7,000. 50 - 70%

How many eosinophils/uL of blood? How much percentage?

100 - 400. 2 - 4%

How many basophils/uL of blood? How much percentage?

20 - 50. <1%

How many lymphocytes/uL of blood? How much percentage?

1,500 - 3,000. 20 - 40%

How many monocytes/uL of blood? How much percentage?

100 - 700. 3 - 8%

How many platelets/uL of blood?

150,000 - 400,000

How much percentage of the blood is the buffy coat?

<1%

What does the buffy coat contain?

leukocytes & platelets

What percentage of the blood is plasma?

~55%

What is the hematocrit range of a normal adult female?

37 - 47%

What is the hematocrit range of a normal adult male?

42 - 52%

What is the hematocrit range of a normal newborn?

49 - 61%

What does plasma contain?

Water, Albumin, Globulins, Fibrinogen, Electrolytes, Nutrients, Wastes, Hormones and Gases

What are the formed elements of blood?

Erythrocytes, Leukocytes, Platelets

aka the cells and cell fragments in blood

What are erythrocytes?

Red blood cells. They use hemoglobin to carry O2 to tissues throughout the body. Is the most abundat formed element in blood.

Their shape is biconcave, anucleate disks, red, 7-8 um diameter.

Function: transport O2 & CO2.

What are leukocytes?

White blood cells. They include neutrophils, eosinophils, basofils, lymphocytes, and monocytes. They can leave blood vessels via diapedesis.

They are spherical nucleated cells

What are granulocytes?

The WBCs that have granules. neutrophils, eosinophils, basofils.

What are agranulocytes?

The WBCs that don’t have granules. lymphocytes, monocytes.

What are platelets.

Incomplete cells made of cytoplasmic fragments that originated from megakaryocytes. They are important in blood clotting

They are cytoplasmic fragments that contain granules. They stain a deep purple and are 2-4 um in diameter.

Function: Seal small tears in blood vessels; important in blood clotting

What are Neutrophils?

Description: nucleus multilobed; pale red and blue granules; 10-12 um diameter

Function: Phagocytize pathogens

What is an eosinophil?

Description: Nucleus bilobed; red cytoplasmic granules; diameter is 10-14um.

Function:Kill parasitic worms; slightly phagocitic; complex role in allergy & asthma.

What is a basophil?

Description: Nucleus lobed; large blue-purple cytoplasmic granules; diameter 10-14 um.

Function: Release histamine & other mediator sof inflammation; contain heparin, which is a anticoagulant.

What is a lymphocyte?

Description: Nucleus spehrical or idnented; pale blue cytoplasm; diamter 5-17um.

Function: Mount immun response by direct cell attack or via antibody production.

What is a monocyte?

Description: Nucleus is U or kidney shaped; gray-blue cytoplasm; diamter is 14-24um.

Function: Develop into macrophages in tissues and phagocitize pathogens or debris.

Name all of the leukocytes in order of most to least abundant.

“Never let monkeys eat bananas”

1. Neutrophils, 2. lymphocytes, 3. monocytes, 4. eosinophils, 5. basophils.

What is leukocytosis? What causes it?

Is when leukocyte count is too high. Is caused by infection & some types of leukemia.

What is anemia? What causes it?

When erythrocyte count is too low. So iron is too low too. Makes hematocrit value go below average.

Caused by Aplastic anemia, Iron-deficiency anemia, Hemolytic anemia, Sickle cell anemia, Hemorrhagic anemia

What is Hemorrhagic anemia caused by?

Is caused by blood loss. Is not dtected by hematocrit b/c is loss of whole blood.

What is Sickle cell anemia caused by?

sickle-shaped erythrocytes are smaller

What is Hemolytic anemia caused by?

When erythrocytes are destroyed too quickly

What is Iron-deficiency anemia?

Is when erythrocytes are smaller

What is Aplastic anemia caused by?

When bone marrow doesn’t produce enough new erythrocytes

What can cause higher hematocrit?

1. Dehydration → plasma percentage decreases since there’s less water

2. High altitude → have higher hematocrit due to the lower level of oxygen in the air → To compensate, they produce more erythrocytes to increase blood oxygen levels

What is hematocrit and how is it measured?

(RBC height)/(total height) x 100

What is plasma?

The liquid part of blood

What is diapedesis?

Diapedesis is the process where blood cells—especially white blood cells, or leukocytes—squeeze through intact capillary walls to enter surrounding body tissues.

How do you do blood typing?

Blood is typed by using antibodies that will cause blood with certain proteins to clump/agglutinate. The antibody well that it agglutinates means the blood you are typing has that antigen.

Ex: if it agglutnates in only B well & Rh well → is B+ blood type.

What blood types can receive blood from other blood types?

A person can only recieve blood from somone who does not have antigens that bind the the antibodies that the person has.

Ex: B+ can recieve from B+, O+, O-, & B-. But B- can only recieve from O+, O-, & B-.

Who is the universal donor & why?

O- becuase they have no antigens

Who is the universal recipient & why?

AB+ becuase they have all of the possible antigens.

What are the major blood group systems? What are the major blood types?

A/B/O & Rh (is +/-)

A+, A-, B+, B-, AB+, AB-, O+, O-

What antigens and antibodies does A+ blood type have? Who can they donate to? Who can they recieve from?

Antigens: A, Rh

Antibodies: B

Can donate to: A+, AB+

Can recieve from: A+, A-, O+, O-

What antigens and antibodies does A- blood type have? Who can they donate to? Who can they recieve from?

Antigens: A

Antibodies: B, Rh

Can donate to: A+, A-, AB+, AB-

Can recieve from: A-, O-

What antigens and antibodies does B+ blood type have? Who can they donate to? Who can they recieve from?

Antigens: B, Rh

Antibodies: A

Can donate to: B+, AB+

Can recieve from: B-, B+, O-, O+

What antigens and antibodies does B- blood type have? Who can they donate to? Who can they recieve from?

Antigens: B

Antibodies: A, Rh

Can donate to: B+, B-, AB+, AB-

Can recieve from: B-, O-

What antigens and antibodies does AB+ blood type have? Who can they donate to? Who can they recieve from?

Antigens: A, B, Rh

Antibodies: None

Can donate to: AB+

Can recieve from: A+, A-, B+, B-, AB+, AB-, O+, O-

What antigens and antibodies does AB- blood type have? Who can they donate to? Who can they recieve from?

Antigens: A, B

Antibodies: Rh

Can donate to: AB-, AB+

Can recieve from: A-, B-, AB-, O-

What antigens and antibodies does O+ blood type have? Who can they donate to? Who can they recieve from?

Antigens: Rh

Antibodies: A, B

Can donate to: A+, B+, AB+, O+

Can recieve from: O-, O+

What antigens and antibodies does O- blood type have? Who can they donate to? Who can they recieve from?

Antigens: none

Antibodies: A, B, Rh

Can donate to: A+, A-, B+, B-, AB+, AB-, O+, O-

Can recieve from: O-

What type of cell is this?

erythrocyte

What type of cell is this?

neutrophil

What type of cell is this?

eosinophil

What type of cell is this?

basophil

What type of cell is this?

lymphocyte

What type of cell is this?

monocyte

What type of cell is this?

platelets

Name all of the lymphoid organs. Which are primary & which are secondary?

Red bone marrow (primary), spleen (secondary), thymus (primary), tonsil (secondary)s, Peyer’s patches (secondary), appendix (secondary).

What organ tissue is this? What are A, B, & C ?

Human palantin tonsil.

A = lymphatic follicles

B = tonsillar crypts

C = germinal center

What organ tissue is this? What is A & B ?

Mammalian lymph node.

A = capsule

B = lymohoid follicles

What organ tissue is this? What is A & B ?

Mammalian lymph vessel

A = lymphatic vessel

B = valve

What tissue is this? What is A, B, C, D, E, & F ?

Red bone marrow

A = red bone marrow

B = spngy bone

C = blood sinusoids

D = adipocytes

E = forming blood cells

F = megakaryocyte

What is this?

White blood cells

What is this? What is A ?

Blood smear

A = white blood cells

B = red blood cells

What are the parts of the antibody? What is the antibody structure?

A = antigen binding site

B = disulfide bonds

C = light chain

D = heavy chain

Four amino acid chains linked by disulfide bonds. Two identical amino acid chains are linked to form a heavy chain. The other two identical chains are light chains. 2 specific antigen-binding sites are present. Constant region same within a class of antibodies. Variable region gives specificity to antigen-binding site.

What are the functions of the antibody?

Binds to specific antigen. Aids in inactivation or destruction of antigen

What is a B cell & what does it do?

Lymphocyte that resides in the lymph nodes, spleen, or other lymphoid tissues, where it is induced to replicate by antigen‑binding and helper T cell interactions; its progeny (clone members) form plasma cells and memory cells.

What is a plasma cell & what does it do?

Antibody‑producing “machine”; produces huge numbers of the same antibody (immunoglobulin); represents further specialization of B cell clone descendants.

What is a helper cell & what does it do?

A T cell that binds with a specific antigen presented by a macrophage; it stimulates the production of other immune cells (cytotoxic T cells and B cells) to help fight the invader; acts both directly and indirectly by releasing cytokines.

What is a cytotoxic T cell & what does it do?

Also called a killer T cell; activity enhanced by helper T cells; its specialty is killing virus‑invaded body cells, as well as body cells that have become cancerous; involved in graft rejection.